Verbal Ability — Notes
Grammar rules, error spotting, sentence improvement, para jumbles, vocabulary, idioms and reading comprehension: the rules in easy words with worked examples and practice sets. Print this page for a PDF.
1. Parts of Speech in Brief
Every word in a sentence has a job. Some words name things (nouns), some stand in for names (pronouns), some show action (verbs), some describe (adjectives and adverbs), and some join or link (prepositions and conjunctions). These jobs are called the parts of speech.
Why this matters for a test: almost every grammar question is really asking "is the right kind of word in the right place?" For example, "He sings good" is wrong because a verb needs an adverb (well), not an adjective.
Think of a cricket team. The same player can bat or bowl, but at any moment he has one job. The word "fast" is the same: in "a fast car" it describes a noun (adjective), in "he runs fast" it describes a verb (adverb). Look at the job, not the word.
Key formulas & rules
| Part of speech | Job | Examples | Test point |
|---|---|---|---|
| Noun | Names a person, place, thing or idea | Ravi, Delhi, table, honesty | Countable (chair) vs uncountable (furniture, advice, information, news) |
| Pronoun | Replaces a noun | he, she, it, they, who, whom, myself | Subject form (I, he, who) before a verb; object form (me, him, whom) after a verb or preposition |
| Verb | Shows action or state | run, is, seem, have | Tense and agreement with the subject |
| Adjective | Describes a noun | tall, honest, three, this | Degrees: tall, taller, tallest. Never "more taller" |
| Adverb | Describes a verb, adjective or another adverb | quickly, very, well, hardly | Action verb + adverb (sings well); linking verb + adjective (looks happy) |
| Preposition | Shows the link of a noun to another word (place, time, direction) | in, on, at, to, with, between | Fixed pairs: interested in, married to |
| Conjunction | Joins words or clauses | and, but, because, although, unless | Never use two for one link: "Although ... but" is wrong |
| Interjection | Shows sudden feeling | Oh! Wow! Alas! | Rarely tested |
| Determiner / article | Points to a noun | a, an, the, some, each, every | Covered in section 4 |
Linking verbs (be, seem, appear, look, feel, smell, taste, sound, become) are followed by an adjective, because the word describes the subject, not the action: "The soup tastes good", "She feels bad".
Pronoun case: after a preposition (between, with, for, to, of) always use the object form: between you and me, with him, to whom.
Comparison: one-syllable adjectives take -er / -est (tall, taller, tallest); long ones take more / most (more beautiful). Never both together: "more better", "most tallest" are always wrong.
Shortcuts
The "-ly" test. If the blank describes how someone does an action, you need an adverb (usually -ly, or well, fast, hard). If it describes the subject after a linking verb, you need an adjective. Ask: "Is it about the doer or the doing?"
The "drop the partner" test for pronouns. In "between you and ___" or "He invited Ravi and ___", drop the other person: "He invited me" sounds right, "He invited I" does not. So the answer is me.
The he/him test for who/whom. Answer the question in your head. "To ___ did you give it?" becomes "I gave it to him". Him ends in m, so pick whom. If the answer is he, pick who.
Solved examples
1. What part of speech is "fast" in "She drives fast"?
- Find what "fast" describes. It tells us how she drives.
- "Drives" is a verb. A word that describes a verb is an adverb.
Answer: adverb. (In "a fast car" the same word is an adjective, because it describes the noun "car".)
2. Correct the sentence: "He did the job very good."
- "Good" is describing how he did the job, that is, the verb "did".
- A verb needs an adverb. The adverb form of good is well.
Answer: "He did the job very well." Rule: adverb modifies a verb.
3. Choose: "The milk smells ___." (sour / sourly)
- "Smells" here is a linking verb: the milk is not doing any smelling; we are describing the milk.
- After a linking verb, use an adjective.
Answer: sour. Rule: linking verb + adjective.
4. Choose: "This secret is between you and ___." (I / me)
- "Between" is a preposition.
- A pronoun after a preposition takes the object form.
Answer: me. Shortcut: "between us" (not "between we") shows the object form is needed.
5. Find the error: "This is the most tallest building in the city."
- "Tallest" is already the superlative (-est).
- Adding "most" makes a double superlative, which is always wrong.
Answer: "This is the tallest building in the city." Rule: no double comparison.
"Hard" vs "hardly". They are different words, not the adjective and adverb pair. Hard = with effort ("He works hard"). Hardly = almost not ("He hardly works" means he does very little work). The same goes for late (not early) and lately (recently).
Uncountable nouns have no plural. Information, advice, furniture, luggage, equipment, news and scenery never take -s and never take "a/an". Say "a piece of advice", "some information", "the news is good".
Practice set
EasyIn "She quickly finished the work", the word "quickly" is (a) an adjective (b) an adverb (c) a verb (d) a noun
Answer: (b) an adverb
It tells us how she finished, so it describes the verb "finished". Rule: a word that modifies a verb is an adverb.
EasyIn "The book is on the table", the word "on" is (a) a preposition (b) an adverb (c) a conjunction (d) a pronoun
Answer: (a) a preposition
"On" links the noun "table" to the rest of the sentence and shows place. Rule: prepositions show place, time or direction before a noun.
EasyChoose the correct word: "This matter is between you and ___." (a) I (b) mine (c) myself (d) me
Answer: (d) me
"Between" is a preposition, and a pronoun after a preposition is in the object form. Rule: preposition + object pronoun.
MediumChoose the correct word: "He sings ___." (a) good (b) goodly (c) well (d) more good
Answer: (c) well
The word describes how he sings (the verb), so an adverb is needed; the adverb of "good" is "well". Rule: action verb + adverb.
MediumChoose the correct word: "The flowers smell ___." (a) sweetly (b) sweet (c) sweetness (d) sweeten
Answer: (b) sweet
"Smell" is used as a linking verb here; the word describes the flowers, not an action. Rule: linking verb + adjective.
MediumChoose the correct form: "Ravi is ___ than his brother." (a) smarter (b) smartest (c) more smarter (d) most smart
Answer: (a) smarter
"Than" signals a comparison of two, so we need the comparative. "More smarter" is a double comparative. Rule: comparative with "than"; never use more + -er together.
MediumIn "Please light the lamp", the word "light" is (a) a noun (b) an adjective (c) an adverb (d) a verb
Answer: (d) a verb
It is the action being asked for (an order: "light it"). Rule: the job in the sentence decides the part of speech, not the word itself.
HardIn "She works hard", the word "hard" is (a) an adjective (b) a noun (c) an adverb (d) a verb
Answer: (c) an adverb
It tells us how she works, so it describes the verb. "Hard" is both the adjective and the adverb form ("hardly" means something else). Rule: modifier of a verb is an adverb.
HardFind the part with the error: "The team played (a) / very good (b) / in the final match (c) / No error (d)"
Answer: (b)
It should be "very well": the word describes how the team played (a verb). Rule: action verb + adverb.
HardChoose the correct word: "To ___ did you give the letter?" (a) whom (b) who (c) whose (d) which
Answer: (a) whom
The pronoun comes after the preposition "to", so the object form is needed. Check: "I gave it to him" (m ending) means whom. Rule: preposition + object pronoun (whom).
2. Tenses
A tense tells us when an action happens (past, present or future) and what shape it has: a simple fact, an action in progress, an action completed before some point, or an action that has been going on for a while.
3 times x 4 shapes = 12 tenses. Once you learn the 4 shapes for one time, the other two times follow the same pattern with a different helping verb.
Think of photos and videos. Simple is a photo (one fact). Continuous is a video playing right now. Perfect is a photo of something already done ("the plate is empty"). Perfect continuous is a long video that is still recording ("I have been cooking for two hours").
Key formulas & rules
| Tense | Structure | Example | Used for |
|---|---|---|---|
| Simple present | V1 / V1+s | She reads daily. | Habits, facts, timetables |
| Present continuous | am/is/are + V-ing | She is reading now. | Action happening now |
| Present perfect | has/have + V3 | She has read it. | Past action, result now; no fixed past time |
| Present perfect continuous | has/have been + V-ing | She has been reading since 9. | Started in past, still going (since/for) |
| Simple past | V2 (did + V1 in negatives/questions) | She read it yesterday. | Finished action at a known past time |
| Past continuous | was/were + V-ing | She was reading when I came. | Action in progress in the past |
| Past perfect | had + V3 | She had read it before the class. | The earlier of two past actions |
| Past perfect continuous | had been + V-ing | She had been reading for an hour when I came. | Went on for a time before a past point |
| Simple future | will/shall + V1 | She will read it. | Future fact or decision |
| Future continuous | will be + V-ing | She will be reading at 8. | In progress at a future time |
| Future perfect | will have + V3 | She will have read it by Monday. | Completed before a future point ("by") |
| Future perfect continuous | will have been + V-ing | She will have been reading for 2 hours by 10. | Duration up to a future point |
Definite past time word (yesterday, last week, in 2019, ago) = simple past, never present perfect. "I saw him yesterday", not "I have seen him yesterday".
After "did / does / do", use V1: "He did not go", not "did not went".
Time / condition clause (if, when, unless, as soon as, before) takes present for future: "If it rains tomorrow, we will stay home."
Since + point of time, for + length of time, both with perfect tenses: since Monday, for three days.
No sooner had ... than; Hardly / Scarcely had ... when.
Stative verbs (know, believe, understand, like, love, want, own, belong, seem) are not normally used in continuous forms: "I know him", not "I am knowing him".
Shortcuts
Hunt for the time word first. "yesterday / last / ago / in 2015" means simple past. "since / for" means a perfect (continuous) tense. "now / look! / listen!" means present continuous. "by the time / before + past" means past perfect for the earlier action. "by + future time" means future perfect. The time word usually decides the answer in five seconds.
Two past actions? Put "had" on the one that happened first. The later one stays in simple past: "The patient had died before the doctor arrived."
Solved examples
1. Correct: "I have seen this movie last week."
- Spot the time word: "last week" is a definite past time.
- Definite past time needs simple past, not present perfect.
Answer: "I saw this movie last week."
2. Fill in: "She ___ in Pune since 2020." (lives / is living / has been living)
- "Since 2020" gives a starting point in the past; the action is still going on.
- Past start + still continuing = present perfect continuous.
Answer: has been living.
3. Fill in: "When I reached the hall, the lecture ___." (started / had started / has started)
- Two past actions: the lecture starting and my reaching.
- The lecture started first, so it takes past perfect.
Answer: had started.
4. Correct: "If you will study hard, you will pass."
- "If" starts a condition clause about the future.
- In such clauses we use the simple present, and "will" goes only in the main clause.
Answer: "If you study hard, you will pass."
5. Fill in: "Hardly ___ the match begun when it started raining." (has / had / did)
- "Hardly ... when" is a fixed pair used with the past perfect.
- The inverted form is "Hardly had + subject + V3".
Answer: had. Faster: memorise the pairs "No sooner had ... than" and "Hardly/Scarcely had ... when".
"Did" + V2. "He did not came", "Did you saw it?" are wrong. The helping verb "did" already carries the past, so the main verb goes back to V1: "He did not come", "Did you see it?"
Continuous with stative verbs. "I am understanding", "She is having a car", "This bag is belonging to me" are wrong. Use simple forms: I understand, she has a car, this bag belongs to me. (But "having lunch" is fine: there "have" is an action, meaning eat.)
"Since" with a length of time. "since three years" is wrong; say "for three years" or "since 2023".
Practice set
Easy"She ___ to school every day." (a) go (b) going (c) goes (d) gone
Answer: (c) goes
"Every day" shows a habit, so simple present; the subject "she" is third person singular, so add -s/-es. Rule: habits take simple present.
Easy"I ___ him yesterday." (a) have met (b) met (c) meet (d) had been meeting
Answer: (b) met
"Yesterday" is a definite past time. Rule: definite past time takes simple past, never present perfect.
Easy"Look! The baby ___." (a) is sleeping (b) sleeps (c) slept (d) has slept
Answer: (a) is sleeping
"Look!" shows the action is happening at this moment. Rule: action in progress now takes present continuous.
Medium"They ___ here since 2019." (a) live (b) are living (c) lived (d) have been living
Answer: (d) have been living
"Since 2019" marks a past starting point of an action that is still going on. Rule: since/for with an ongoing action takes present perfect (continuous).
Medium"By the time we reached the station, the train ___." (a) left (b) has left (c) had left (d) leaves
Answer: (c) had left
Two past actions; the train left first. Rule: the earlier of two past actions takes past perfect.
Medium"If it ___ tomorrow, we will cancel the trip." (a) will rain (b) rains (c) rained (d) would rain
Answer: (b) rains
This is a condition about the future; "will" belongs in the main clause only. Rule: if-clause of the first conditional takes simple present.
Medium"She ___ English for five years before she moved to London." (a) had been studying (b) has studied (c) is studying (d) studies
Answer: (a) had been studying
The studying went on for a period (five years) before another past action (moved). Rule: duration before a past point takes past perfect continuous.
Hard"No sooner ___ the bell rung than the students rushed out." (a) has (b) did (c) was (d) had
Answer: (d) had
"Rung" is V3, and the fixed pattern is "No sooner had + subject + V3 ... than". Rule: No sooner had ... than.
Hard"I ___ the answer now." (a) am knowing (b) have been knowing (c) know (d) was knowing
Answer: (c) know
"Know" is a stative verb (a state of mind, not an action), so it is not used in continuous forms. Rule: stative verbs take simple tenses.
Hard"By next June, she ___ in this company for ten years." (a) will work (b) will have worked (c) works (d) has worked
Answer: (b) will have worked
"By next June" is a future deadline and "for ten years" is a duration completed by then. Rule: by + future time takes future perfect.
3. Subject–Verb Agreement
Subject–verb agreement means a singular subject takes a singular verb (is, was, has, goes) and a plural subject takes a plural verb (are, were, have, go). The hard part is finding the real subject, because tests hide it behind phrases like "along with", "one of the" or "either ... or".
Think of a lock and key. The subject is the lock and the verb is the key. You must match the key to the lock itself, not to the keychain hanging next to it. In "The box of chocolates is on the table", the lock is "box" (one box); "chocolates" is just the keychain.
Key formulas & rules
| Rule | Verb | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Either ... or / Neither ... nor / not only ... but also | Agrees with the nearer subject | Neither the teacher nor the students were present. Neither the students nor the teacher was present. |
| Each, every, either, neither, everyone, somebody, nobody | Singular | Each of the boys has a book. Every boy and every girl was given a prize. |
| One of the + plural noun | Singular (subject is "one") | One of my friends is a doctor. |
| One of the + plural noun + who/that | Plural in the who-clause (it refers to the plural noun) | He is one of the best players who have played for India. |
| The number of | Singular | The number of students is rising. |
| A number of (= many) | Plural | A number of students are absent. |
| As well as, along with, with, together with, besides, including | Agrees with the first subject | The captain, along with his players, has arrived. |
| A and B (two things) | Plural | Ravi and Meena are friends. |
| A and B as one idea or one person | Singular | Bread and butter is my breakfast. The poet and singer has come. (one person: one "the") |
| Collective noun acting as one unit | Singular | The committee has submitted its report. |
| Always plural nouns: cattle, police, people, scissors, trousers | Plural | The cattle are grazing. The police have come. |
| Plural-looking but singular: news, mathematics, physics, economics (subject) | Singular | Mathematics is easy. The news is true. |
| Amount of money, time, distance as one quantity | Singular | Ten kilometres is a long walk. Five hundred rupees is enough. |
| Fractions, percentages, "some of", "all of", "most of" | Agree with the noun after "of" | Half of the cake was eaten. Half of the apples were bad. |
Shortcuts
Cross out the middle. Put brackets around any phrase that starts with of, with, along with, as well as, together with, besides, including, in addition to. Read the sentence without it. "The box [of chocolates] ___" becomes "The box ___", clearly is.
"THE number" is one number, "A number" is many. Replace "a number of" with "many": "Many students are absent". Replace "the number of" with "the count": "The count is rising".
Each / every / any / no + body/one/thing is always singular. Everyone, somebody, nothing, each of, either of, neither of: all take is / has / was.
Solved examples
1. "Either the manager or his assistants ___ responsible." (is / are)
- "Either ... or" joins two subjects, so look at the nearer one.
- The nearer subject is "assistants", which is plural.
Answer: are.
2. "The quality of the mangoes ___ poor." (was / were)
- Bracket "of the mangoes". The sentence becomes "The quality ___ poor".
- "Quality" is singular.
Answer: was. Trap: "mangoes" sits right next to the verb to fool you.
3. "The Prime Minister, as well as his ministers, ___ attending the meeting." (is / are)
- Bracket "as well as his ministers".
- The real subject is "The Prime Minister", singular.
Answer: is.
4. "One of the students ___ won a scholarship." (has / have)
- The subject is "one", not "students"; "of the students" is a phrase that just tells us the group.
- "One" is singular.
Answer: has.
5. "Three-fourths of the work ___ done, but three-fourths of the workers ___ gone home." (is, have / are, has)
- With fractions, look at the noun after "of".
- "Work" is uncountable (singular), so is; "workers" is plural, so have.
Answer: is, have.
6. "He is one of those people who never ___ up." (give / gives)
- "Who" refers back to the nearest noun, "people", not to "one".
- "People" is plural, so the verb in the who-clause is plural.
Answer: give. Compare: "He is the only one of those people who never gives up", where "who" refers to "the only one".
"With" does not make a plural. "The teacher with her students are going" is wrong; "with" phrases are extra, so it is "The teacher with her students is going". Only and joins two subjects into a plural.
"Each" after a plural subject does not change it. "They each have a car" is correct (subject "they"), but "Each of them has a car" (subject "each"). See which word is really the subject.
Practice set
Easy"Neither the teacher nor the students ___ present." (a) was (b) has been (c) is (d) were
Answer: (d) were
With "neither ... nor" the verb agrees with the nearer subject, "students", which is plural; the sentence is in the past. Rule: neither/nor takes the verb of the nearer subject.
Easy"Each of the boys ___ a prize." (a) have got (b) have (c) has (d) are having
Answer: (c) has
The subject is "each", which is always singular. Rule: each / every / either / neither of take a singular verb.
Easy"One of my friends ___ a doctor." (a) are (b) is (c) were (d) have been
Answer: (b) is
The subject is "one", singular; "of my friends" only names the group. Rule: one of + plural noun takes a singular verb.
Medium"The number of students in the college ___ increasing." (a) is (b) have been (c) are (d) were
Answer: (a) is
"The number" is one quantity. Rule: "the number of" takes a singular verb.
Medium"A number of students ___ absent today." (a) is (b) has been (c) was (d) are
Answer: (d) are
"A number of" means "many", so the subject is plural; "today" keeps it in the present. Rule: "a number of" takes a plural verb.
Medium"The captain, along with his players, ___ arrived." (a) have (b) are (c) has (d) were
Answer: (c) has
Skip the "along with" phrase; the subject is "the captain", singular. Rule: along with / as well as / with do not change the number of the subject.
Medium"Either my brothers or my father ___ going to pick me up." (a) are (b) is (c) were (d) have
Answer: (b) is
With "either ... or" the verb agrees with the nearer subject, "my father", singular. Rule: either/or takes the verb of the nearer subject.
Hard"The committee ___ submitted its report." (a) has (b) have (c) are (d) were
Answer: (a) has
The committee acts as one body, shown by "its". Rule: a collective noun acting as a single unit takes a singular verb.
Hard"Mathematics ___ my favourite subject, and the cattle ___ grazing in the field." (a) are, is (b) is, is (c) are, are (d) is, are
Answer: (d) is, are
"Mathematics" is a subject name that looks plural but is singular; "cattle" is always plural. Rule: names of subjects in -ics are singular; cattle/police/people are plural.
Hard"Bread and butter ___ my usual breakfast, but Ravi and Meena ___ eggs." (a) are, prefer (b) are, prefers (c) is, prefer (d) is, prefers
Answer: (c) is, prefer
"Bread and butter" is one dish (one idea), so singular; "Ravi and Meena" are two people joined by "and", so plural. Rule: two nouns forming one idea take a singular verb; two separate subjects joined by "and" take a plural verb.
4. Articles & Prepositions
Articles are the three small words a, an and the. "A/an" points to any one thing ("a pen"); "the" points to a particular thing both of you know ("the pen I gave you"). Sometimes no article is used at all.
Prepositions (in, on, at, to, of, with...) link a noun to the rest of the sentence. Many verbs and adjectives come with a fixed preposition that you simply have to remember: interested in, married to, afraid of.
"A" is like saying "give me a chair" in a room full of chairs: any chair will do. "The" is like saying "give me the chair near the window": only one chair fits. Fixed prepositions are like a person's surname: "interested" always travels with "in", the way a first name travels with its family name.
Key formulas & rules
| Article rule | Correct examples |
|---|---|
| A / an depends on the first SOUND, not the first letter. Vowel sound: an. Consonant sound: a. | an hour, an honest man, an MBA, an FIR, an umbrella; a university, a European, a one-rupee coin, a uniform, a useful tip |
| The for something already mentioned or known to both | I bought a pen. The pen is blue. |
| The for unique things | the sun, the moon, the earth, the sky |
| The with superlatives and ordinals | the best, the tallest, the first, the last |
| The with rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges, groups of islands, deserts | the Ganga, the Arabian Sea, the Himalayas, the Andamans, the Thar |
| The with holy books, newspapers, musical instruments, famous buildings | the Gita, the Hindu, play the guitar, the Taj Mahal |
| The + adjective = a whole class of people | the rich, the poor, the blind |
| No article: names of people, most countries, cities, languages, meals, games, subjects | Ravi, India, Delhi, Hindi, have breakfast, play cricket, study physics (but the USA, the UK, the Netherlands) |
| No article: school, church, hospital, prison, bed when used for their main purpose | go to school (to study), go to bed; but "went to the school to meet the principal" |
| No article: single mountains and lakes | Mount Everest, Dal Lake |
| Fixed preposition pairs (must remember) | ||
|---|---|---|
| interested in | married to | prefer X to Y |
| good at | afraid of | fond of |
| senior / junior / superior / inferior / prior to | similar to | different from |
| angry with a person, at a thing | agree with a person, to a proposal | depend on |
| congratulate on | insist on | accused of, charged with |
| consist of | suffer from | comply with, abide by |
| capable of | responsible for | proud of |
| No preposition after: discuss (not discuss about), enter a room (not enter into), reach a place (not reach at), resemble (not resemble with), attack (not attack on), request leave (the verb "request" takes no "for"), order food (not order for) | ||
| Time: at 5 pm, at night, at noon; on Monday, on 5 June; in June, in 2024, in the morning. Since a point of time, for a length of time. | ||
Shortcuts
Abbreviations read letter by letter: F, H, L, M, N, R, S, X start with a vowel sound ("ef", "aitch", "el", "em", "en", "ar", "es", "ex"), so they take an: an FIR, an MLA, an SP, an X-ray, an NGO.
Latin "-ior" words take "to", never "than": senior, junior, superior, inferior, prior, anterior, posterior. "He is senior to me." Also "prefer ... to" and "preferable to".
When a noun is "known" to both people, use "the". If you can answer "which one?", use "the". If the answer is "any one", use "a/an".
Solved examples
1. Fill in: "He waited for ___ hour and then bought ___ umbrella and ___ uniform."
- "Hour": the h is silent, first sound is a vowel sound, so an.
- "Umbrella": first sound "uh", a vowel sound, so an.
- "Uniform": first sound "yoo", a consonant sound, so a.
Answer: an, an, a.
2. Correct: "Sun rises in east."
- "Sun" is unique: there is only one, so it takes the.
- Directions used as places ("in the east") take the.
Answer: "The sun rises in the east."
3. Correct: "She prefers coffee than tea."
- "Prefer" compares using to, not "than".
Answer: "She prefers coffee to tea."
4. Correct: "We reached at the station and discussed about the plan."
- "Reach" takes a direct object: reach the station.
- "Discuss" takes a direct object: discuss the plan.
Answer: "We reached the station and discussed the plan."
5. Fill in: "She has been married ___ an engineer ___ 2015 and lives ___ Mumbai."
- "Married" takes to.
- 2015 is a point of time with a perfect tense, so since.
- A city takes in.
Answer: to, since, in.
"Married with" and "married to". A person is married to someone. "Married with" only appears in phrases like "married with two children" (meaning "and has two children"), so for a partner always choose to.
"A" before "u" and "o" words. Many students write "an university" or "an one-day match". Say them aloud: "yoo-niversity", "wun-day". Both start with consonant sounds, so it is a university, a one-day match.
Practice set
Easy"She is ___ honest girl." (a) an (b) a (c) the (d) no article
Answer: (a) an
The h in "honest" is silent, so the word begins with a vowel sound. Rule: "an" before a vowel sound.
Easy"He is ___ university professor." (a) no article (b) an (c) the (d) a
Answer: (d) a
"University" begins with the sound "yoo", a consonant sound. Rule: "a" before a consonant sound, whatever the letter.
Easy"He is interested ___ music." (a) on (b) at (c) in (d) for
Answer: (c) in
Rule: fixed pair "interested in".
Medium"She is married ___ a doctor." (a) with (b) to (c) by (d) for
Answer: (b) to
Rule: fixed pair "married to" a person.
Medium"I prefer tea ___ coffee." (a) to (b) over than (c) than (d) from
Answer: (a) to
Rule: "prefer X to Y"; "prefer" never takes "than".
Medium"___ Ganga is a holy river." (a) A (b) An (c) no article (d) The
Answer: (d) The
Rule: names of rivers take "the".
Medium"He is senior ___ me by two years." (a) than (b) from (c) to (d) over
Answer: (c) to
Rule: senior, junior, superior, inferior and prior take "to", not "than".
Hard"She plays ___ violin, and her brother plays ___ cricket." (a) the, the (b) the, no article (c) no article, the (d) a, a
Answer: (b) the, no article
Rule: musical instruments take "the"; names of games take no article.
Hard"He has been ill ___ Monday." (a) since (b) from (c) for (d) by
Answer: (a) since
"Monday" is a point of time and the tense is present perfect continuous. Rule: since + point of time, for + length of time.
HardFind the part with the error: "We discussed about the plan (a) / for over an hour (b) / yesterday evening (c) / No error (d)"
Answer: (a)
It should be "We discussed the plan". Rule: "discuss" takes a direct object with no preposition.
5. Active & Passive Voice
In the active voice the doer comes first: "Ravi wrote a letter." In the passive voice the thing that receives the action comes first: "A letter was written by Ravi." The meaning and the tense stay exactly the same; only the focus changes.
Only verbs that have an object (transitive verbs) can be made passive. "He sleeps" has no object, so it has no passive.
Imagine a photo of a cricket shot. Active: the camera is on the batsman ("Kohli hit the ball"). Passive: the camera is on the ball ("The ball was hit by Kohli"). Same shot, same moment, different focus.
Key formulas & rules
Passive = object of active + correct form of "be" + V3 + by + subject (as object form)
Pronoun swap: I → me, we → us, he → him, she → her, they → them, you → you, who → whom.
The tense of the "be" verb must match the active tense.
| Tense | Active | Passive ("be" part + V3) |
|---|---|---|
| Simple present | She writes a letter. | A letter is written by her. |
| Present continuous | She is writing a letter. | A letter is being written by her. |
| Present perfect | She has written a letter. | A letter has been written by her. |
| Simple past | She wrote a letter. | A letter was written by her. |
| Past continuous | She was writing a letter. | A letter was being written by her. |
| Past perfect | She had written a letter. | A letter had been written by her. |
| Simple future | She will write a letter. | A letter will be written by her. |
| Future perfect | She will have written a letter. | A letter will have been written by her. |
| Perfect continuous tenses and future continuous | She has been writing a letter. | Passive is normally not used in tests; keep these in the active voice. |
| Modals (can, could, may, might, must, should, would) | You must obey the rules. | The rules must be obeyed by you. (modal + be + V3) |
| "Have to / ought to / going to" | We have to finish the work. | The work has to be finished by us. |
| Imperative (order) | Open the door. | Let the door be opened. |
| Imperative (request / advice) | Please help me. | You are requested to help me. |
| Negative imperative | Do not touch the wire. | Let the wire not be touched. / You are warned not to touch the wire. |
| Wh-question | Who wrote this? | By whom was this written? |
| Yes/no question | Did he paint the wall? | Was the wall painted by him? |
Shortcuts
Check only the verb first. In MCQs, three options usually have the wrong tense of "be". Identify the active tense, pick its "be" form (is / is being / has been / was / was being / had been / will be / will have been) and eliminate the rest. You rarely need to read the whole sentence.
"Being" only comes with continuous tenses; "been" only comes with perfect tenses. If the active verb has -ing, the passive must contain "being". If the active has has/have/had, the passive must contain "been".
Solved examples
1. Change to passive: "They are building a new bridge."
- Tense: present continuous (are + building).
- Passive "be" form: is/are being + V3. The new subject "a new bridge" is singular, so is being built.
- Old subject "they" becomes "by them".
Answer: "A new bridge is being built by them."
2. Change to passive: "The teacher has checked the copies."
- Tense: present perfect (has + V3).
- New subject "the copies" is plural, so have been checked.
Answer: "The copies have been checked by the teacher." Note how has changed to have to agree with the new subject.
3. Change to passive: "You should respect your elders."
- Modal "should" + V1.
- Passive: modal + be + V3.
Answer: "Your elders should be respected by you."
4. Change to passive: "Shut the window."
- This is an imperative (an order) with no subject.
- Pattern: Let + object + be + V3.
Answer: "Let the window be shut."
5. Change to passive: "Who stole my pen?"
- "Who" is the subject, so it becomes "by whom" and moves to the front.
- Tense: simple past, so was + V3; question order puts "was" before the new subject.
Answer: "By whom was my pen stolen?"
Changing the tense by mistake. "She wrote a letter" becomes "A letter was written", not "has been written" or "is written". The tense of the "be" verb must match the active verb exactly.
Forgetting to change the pronoun case. "By he" or "by they" is wrong: after "by" use the object form: by him, by them. Going the other way (passive to active), "by me" becomes the subject I.
Practice set
EasyChange to passive: "She writes a letter." (a) A letter was written by her. (b) A letter is written by her. (c) A letter is being written by her. (d) A letter has been written by her.
Answer: (b) A letter is written by her.
Simple present takes is/are + V3. Rule: the passive keeps the tense of the active.
EasyChange to passive: "The boy broke the window." (a) The window was broken by the boy. (b) The window is broken by the boy. (c) The window had broken by the boy. (d) The window was being broken by the boy.
Answer: (a) The window was broken by the boy.
Simple past takes was/were + V3. Rule: simple past passive = was/were + V3.
MediumChange to passive: "They are building a bridge." (a) A bridge is built by them. (b) A bridge was being built by them. (c) A bridge has been built by them. (d) A bridge is being built by them.
Answer: (d) A bridge is being built by them.
Present continuous takes is/are being + V3. Rule: continuous passive needs "being".
MediumChange to passive: "He has finished the work." (a) The work was finished by him. (b) The work had been finished by him. (c) The work has been finished by him. (d) The work is finished by him.
Answer: (c) The work has been finished by him.
Present perfect takes has/have been + V3. Rule: perfect passive needs "been".
MediumChange to passive: "You must obey the rules." (a) The rules must obey by you. (b) The rules must be obeyed by you. (c) The rules must have obeyed by you. (d) The rules are obeyed by you.
Answer: (b) The rules must be obeyed by you.
Rule: modal + be + V3.
MediumChange to passive: "Open the door." (a) Let the door be opened. (b) The door is opened. (c) Let the door open. (d) The door should open.
Answer: (a) Let the door be opened.
It is an order (imperative). Rule: imperative passive = Let + object + be + V3.
HardChange to passive: "Who taught you English?" (a) Whom did teach you English? (b) Who was taught English by you? (c) By whom you were taught English? (d) By whom were you taught English?
Answer: (d) By whom were you taught English?
"Who" becomes "by whom"; simple past gives was/were + V3; a question keeps the helping verb before the subject, which (c) forgets. Rule: wh-question passive = By whom + be + subject + V3?
HardChange to passive: "The police had arrested the thief." (a) The thief was arrested by the police. (b) The thief has been arrested by the police. (c) The thief had been arrested by the police. (d) The thief had arrested by the police.
Answer: (c) The thief had been arrested by the police.
Past perfect takes had been + V3; (d) drops "been" and changes the meaning. Rule: past perfect passive = had been + V3.
HardChange to passive: "Will they invite us?" (a) Will we invited by them? (b) Will we be invited by them? (c) Shall they be invited by us? (d) Are we invited by them?
Answer: (b) Will we be invited by them?
"Us" becomes the subject "we", "they" becomes "by them", and simple future takes will be + V3. Rule: future passive = will be + V3; swap pronoun case.
HardChange to active: "The match was being played by them." (a) They were playing the match. (b) They played the match. (c) They had played the match. (d) They have been playing the match.
Answer: (a) They were playing the match.
"Was being + V3" is the past continuous passive, so the active is was/were + V-ing. Rule: the voice changes, the tense does not.
6. Direct & Indirect Speech
Direct speech repeats someone's exact words inside quotation marks: He said, "I am tired." Indirect (reported) speech tells what they said in our own sentence, without quotes: He said that he was tired.
When the reporting verb is in the past (said, told, asked), three things usually change: the tense moves one step back, the pronouns change to fit the new speaker, and time and place words change (now becomes then, here becomes there).
It is like telling your mother what your friend said on the phone yesterday. Your friend said "I am coming tomorrow"; you tell your mother "She said she was coming the next day." You naturally shift the words because the moment and the speaker are different now.
Key formulas & rules
| Direct speech | Indirect speech (reporting verb in past) | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Simple present | Simple past | "I like tea" → he said that he liked tea |
| Present continuous | Past continuous | "I am going" → he said that he was going |
| Present perfect | Past perfect | "I have eaten" → he said that he had eaten |
| Present perfect continuous | Past perfect continuous | "I have been waiting" → he said that he had been waiting |
| Simple past | Past perfect | "I saw her" → he said that he had seen her |
| Past continuous | Past perfect continuous | "I was reading" → he said that he had been reading |
| will / shall | would / should | "I will come" → he said that he would come |
| can / may / must | could / might / had to | "I can swim" → he said that he could swim |
| Time / place word | Becomes | Time / place word | Becomes |
|---|---|---|---|
| now | then | here | there |
| today | that day | this / these | that / those |
| tomorrow | the next day / the following day | yesterday | the previous day / the day before |
| next week | the following week | last night | the previous night / the night before |
| ago | before | tonight | that night |
Pronouns (the SON rule): 1st person (I, we) changes to match the Subject of the reporting verb; 2nd person (you) changes to match the Object of the reporting verb; 3rd person (he, she, they) No change.
No tense change when: (1) the reporting verb is in the present or future ("He says that he is tired"); (2) the direct speech is a universal truth or habitual fact ("The teacher said that the earth moves round the sun").
Statements: said → said that; said to → told + object + that.
Yes/no questions: asked + if / whether + subject + verb (statement order, no question mark).
Wh-questions: asked + wh-word + subject + verb (statement order).
Commands / requests: told / ordered / requested / advised + object + to + V1; negative: not to + V1.
Let's: suggested / proposed that we should + V1.
Exclamations: exclaimed with joy / sorrow / surprise + that + statement.
Shortcuts
Eliminate by the three checks, in order: (1) Is the reporting verb right (told for commands, asked for questions)? (2) Is the tense backshifted? (3) Are the time words changed (tomorrow → the next day)? Most wrong options fail one of these three.
Reported questions are not questions. Any option that keeps a question mark or the question word order ("asked where did I live") is wrong. Correct: "asked where I lived".
Solved examples
1. Change: He said to me, "I will help you tomorrow."
- "Said to me" becomes "told me that".
- "I" refers to the speaker, so "he"; "you" refers to the listener (me), so "me".
- "Will" becomes "would"; "tomorrow" becomes "the next day".
Answer: He told me that he would help me the next day.
2. Change: She asked me, "Are you ready?"
- Yes/no question, so use "if" or "whether".
- "You" is the listener, "me", so "I"; "are" backshifts to "was" (for I).
- Statement order, no question mark.
Answer: She asked me if I was ready.
3. Change: The teacher said to the students, "Do not talk in the class."
- It is a command, so "said to" becomes "told" (or "ordered").
- Negative command: not to + V1.
Answer: The teacher told the students not to talk in the class.
4. Change: He said, "I met her two days ago."
- Simple past "met" becomes past perfect "had met".
- "Ago" becomes "before".
Answer: He said that he had met her two days before.
5. Change: She says, "I am busy."
- The reporting verb "says" is in the present tense.
- So the tense inside does not change.
Answer: She says that she is busy.
Changing a universal truth. "He said, 'Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius'" stays in the present: He said that water boils at 100 degrees Celsius. Options with "boiled" are wrong.
"Said to" + object is not allowed with "that". "He said to me that ..." is avoided in tests; use "He told me that ...". And never "He told that ..." without an object.
Practice set
EasyHe said, "I am tired." (a) He said that he is tired. (b) He said that I was tired. (c) He said that he was tired. (d) He told that he was tired.
Answer: (c) He said that he was tired.
Past reporting verb, so "am" backshifts to "was"; "I" becomes "he" (the speaker); (d) uses "told" without an object. Rule: present becomes past after a past reporting verb.
EasyShe said to me, "Close the door." (a) She told me that close the door. (b) She told me to close the door. (c) She said me to close the door. (d) She told to me close the door.
Answer: (b) She told me to close the door.
It is a command. Rule: told + object + to + V1.
MediumHe said, "I will come tomorrow." (a) He said that he would come the next day. (b) He said that he will come tomorrow. (c) He said that he would come tomorrow. (d) He said that I would come the next day.
Answer: (a) He said that he would come the next day.
"Will" becomes "would" and "tomorrow" becomes "the next day". Rule: backshift the modal and change the time word.
MediumShe asked me, "Where do you live?" (a) She asked me where do I live. (b) She asked me that where I lived. (c) She asked me where did I live. (d) She asked me where I lived.
Answer: (d) She asked me where I lived.
A reported wh-question uses the wh-word and statement order, with no "do/did" and no "that". Rule: asked + wh-word + subject + verb.
MediumHe asked me, "Are you coming?" (a) He asked me that was I coming. (b) He asked me whether you are coming. (c) He asked me whether I was coming. (d) He asked me was I coming?
Answer: (c) He asked me whether I was coming.
Yes/no question: use if/whether, statement order; "you" (the listener, me) becomes "I"; "are" backshifts to "was". Rule: asked + if/whether + subject + verb.
MediumThe teacher said, "The earth moves round the sun." (a) The teacher said that the earth moved round the sun. (b) The teacher said that the earth moves round the sun. (c) The teacher said that the earth had moved round the sun. (d) The teacher told that the earth moves round the sun.
Answer: (b) The teacher said that the earth moves round the sun.
It is a universal truth, so the tense does not change; (d) uses "told" without an object. Rule: universal truths keep the present tense.
HardShe said, "I have finished my work." (a) She said that she had finished her work. (b) She said that she had finished my work. (c) She said that she has finished her work. (d) She said that she finished her work.
Answer: (a) She said that she had finished her work.
Present perfect becomes past perfect; "I / my" become "she / her" to match the subject "she". Rule: present perfect becomes past perfect; 1st person follows the reporting subject.
HardHe said to me, "Don't make a noise." (a) He told me to not making a noise. (b) He told me don't make a noise. (c) He said me not to make a noise. (d) He told me not to make a noise.
Answer: (d) He told me not to make a noise.
Negative command. Rule: told + object + not to + V1.
HardHe said, "I saw her yesterday." (a) He said that he saw her yesterday. (b) He said that he has seen her the previous day. (c) He said that he had seen her the previous day. (d) He said that he had seen her yesterday.
Answer: (c) He said that he had seen her the previous day.
Simple past becomes past perfect, and "yesterday" becomes "the previous day". Rule: past becomes past perfect; change the time word.
HardHe said, "Let's go for a walk." (a) He said let's go for a walk. (b) He suggested that we should go for a walk. (c) He told us to going for a walk. (d) He suggested that let us go for a walk.
Answer: (b) He suggested that we should go for a walk.
A "let's" sentence is a suggestion. Rule: Let's becomes suggested/proposed that we should + V1.
7. Error Spotting
In error spotting, a sentence is cut into three or four parts, labelled (a), (b), (c), and the last option is "No error". Exactly one part contains a grammar mistake, or none does. Your job is to find which part.
The secret is to stop reading for meaning and start checking. Almost every error in these tests comes from a short list of rules: subject–verb agreement, tense, pronoun, article, preposition, parallelism, modifier, and a few fixed pairs like "No sooner ... than".
It is like a mechanic with a checklist. He does not just listen to the car and guess; he checks brakes, then tyres, then oil, one by one. You check subject–verb, then tense, then pronoun, and so on. The error almost always shows up by the fourth check.
Key formulas & rules
| Check | What to look for | Wrong | Right |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Subject–verb | Find the real subject; skip "of / with / along with" phrases | The cost of vegetables have risen. | The cost of vegetables has risen. |
| 2. Tense | Time words (yesterday, since, by), did + V1, sequence of past actions | He has come yesterday. | He came yesterday. |
| 3. Pronoun | Case after prepositions; "myself" used as a subject; one ... one's | My sister and myself went. | My sister and I went. |
| 4. Article / noun | a/an by sound; uncountable nouns; "one of" + plural | He gave me an advice. | He gave me some advice. |
| 5. Preposition | Fixed pairs; extra preposition after discuss, reach, enter | She is good in maths. | She is good at maths. |
| 6. Parallelism | Items in a list or joined by and / or / not only ... but also must have the same form | He likes reading, writing and to swim. | He likes reading, writing and swimming. |
| 7. Modifier | An opening -ing / -ed phrase must describe the subject that comes right after the comma | Walking home, the rain started. | Walking home, I got caught in the rain. |
| Extra: conjunction pairs | Although / though ... (no but); No sooner ... than; Hardly / scarcely ... when; Not only ... but also; Unless = if not (no second "not") | Although he is rich, but he is unhappy. | Although he is rich, he is unhappy. |
| Extra: comparison / redundancy | more + -er; "return back", "repeat again" | He returned back home. | He returned home. |
Shortcuts
Read part by part, not the whole sentence at once. First find the subject and main verb (check 1 and 2); that already catches the most errors. Then scan each part for the "red flag" words: of, with, along with, each, every, one of, since, for, yesterday, although, unless, hardly, no sooner, than, between, prefer, senior.
Do not fear "No error". It is a real answer and does come up regularly. If you have run all seven checks and nothing fails, mark it with confidence instead of forcing a doubtful answer.
Red-flag word, then its partner. "Although" means check for an extra "but". "No sooner" means check for "than". "Unless" means check for an extra "not". "Prefer / senior" means check for "to". "Each / every / one of" means check for a singular verb.
Solved examples
1. "The quality of these apples (a) / are not good (b) / this season (c) / No error (d)"
- Check 1: the subject is "quality" (bracket "of these apples").
- "Quality" is singular, so the verb must be "is".
Answer: (b), should be "is not good". Rule: subject–verb agreement, ignore the "of" phrase.
2. "He has returned (a) / from Delhi (b) / yesterday (c) / No error (d)"
- Check 1 passes (he has).
- Check 2: "yesterday" is a definite past time, which cannot go with the present perfect "has returned".
Answer: (a), should be "He returned". Rule: definite past time takes simple past.
3. "My brother and myself (a) / went to the market (b) / to buy vegetables (c) / No error (d)"
- Checks 1 and 2 pass.
- Check 3: "myself" is a reflexive pronoun; it cannot be the subject. Drop the partner: "myself went" is clearly wrong.
Answer: (a), should be "My brother and I". Rule: reflexive pronouns are not used as subjects.
4. "She is intelligent, (a) / hardworking and (b) / has honesty (c) / No error (d)"
- Checks 1 to 5 pass.
- Check 6: the list is intelligent (adjective), hardworking (adjective), has honesty (verb phrase). Not parallel.
Answer: (c), should be "honest". Rule: items in a list take the same grammatical form.
5. "Not only he sings (a) / but also dances (b) / very well (c) / No error (d)"
- "Not only ... but also" must stand right before the two matching parts.
- Here "not only" stands before "he sings" (subject + verb), but "but also" stands before "dances" (verb only). Move "he" to the front so both are followed by a verb: "He not only sings but also dances very well."
Answer: (a), "He not only sings". Rule: correlative pairs must be placed before parallel parts.
6. "Unless you do not (a) / leave now, (b) / you will miss the bus (c) / No error (d)"
- "Unless" already means "if not".
- "Unless you do not leave" becomes a double negative: "if you do not not leave".
Answer: (a), should be "Unless you leave now". Rule: never use "not" after "unless".
More quick examples (the error, the rule and the fix):
| Wrong | Rule broken | Right |
|---|---|---|
| He is more cleverer than his brother. | Double comparative | He is cleverer than his brother. |
| I am knowing her for years. | Stative verb; since/for needs perfect | I have known her for years. |
| This is between you and I. | Object pronoun after preposition | This is between you and me. |
| He is an European. | a/an by sound ("yoo") | He is a European. |
| The scenery here are beautiful. | Uncountable noun takes singular verb | The scenery here is beautiful. |
| One should do his duty. | Pronoun consistency with "one" | One should do one's duty. |
| I look forward to meet you. | "to" here is a preposition, so V-ing follows | I look forward to meeting you. |
| Each boy and each girl were given a gift. | each ... and each takes singular | Each boy and each girl was given a gift. |
| We entered into the hall. | No preposition after "enter" (a place) | We entered the hall. |
| He is one of the best player in the team. | one of the + plural noun | He is one of the best players in the team. |
| No sooner did he arrive when it rained. | No sooner ... than | No sooner did he arrive than it rained. |
| Walking in the park, a snake bit him. | Dangling modifier: the snake was not walking | Walking in the park, he was bitten by a snake. |
The "nearest noun" trap. Examiners put a plural noun right before the verb: "The list of items are on the desk." Your ear hears "items are" and says it is fine. Always go back to the true subject ("list") before judging the verb.
Marking a style choice as an error. Tests only mark clear grammar rules. Word order like "I and my friend" or a slightly long sentence is not what they test. If you cannot name the rule that is broken, it is probably not the error.
Practice set
Easy"One of my friend (a) / is going (b) / to Canada next month (c) / No error (d)"
Answer: (a)
Should be "One of my friends". Rule: "one of" is followed by a plural noun (and a singular verb).
Easy"He did not went (a) / to the market (b) / yesterday (c) / No error (d)"
Answer: (a)
Should be "He did not go". Rule: after did / does / do, use V1.
Easy"The news (a) / are too good (b) / to be true (c) / No error (d)"
Answer: (b)
Should be "is too good". Rule: "news" is singular (uncountable) and takes a singular verb.
Medium"Although he worked hard, (a) / but he (b) / failed the exam (c) / No error (d)"
Answer: (b)
Remove "but". Rule: "although / though" already joins the clauses; do not add "but".
Medium"She is senior than (a) / me by (b) / three years (c) / No error (d)"
Answer: (a)
Should be "senior to". Rule: senior, junior, superior, inferior, prior take "to", not "than".
Medium"The furniture in the room (a) / were bought (b) / last year (c) / No error (d)"
Answer: (b)
Should be "was bought". Rule: "furniture" is an uncountable noun and takes a singular verb.
Medium"Neither Ravi nor his friends (a) / were present (b) / at the meeting (c) / No error (d)"
Answer: (d) No error
With "neither ... nor" the verb agrees with the nearer subject, "his friends" (plural), so "were" is correct. Rule: neither/nor takes the verb of the nearer subject.
Hard"He likes swimming, (a) / dancing and (b) / to play cricket (c) / No error (d)"
Answer: (c)
Should be "playing cricket". Rule: parallelism, the items in a list must have the same form (all -ing).
Hard"Each of the students (a) / have submitted (b) / the assignment (c) / No error (d)"
Answer: (b)
Should be "has submitted". Rule: "each of" takes a singular verb; ignore the plural "students".
Hard"Hardly had he reached (a) / the station (b) / than the train left (c) / No error (d)"
Answer: (c)
Should be "when the train left". Rule: "Hardly / Scarcely ... when"; only "No sooner" pairs with "than".
8. Sentence Improvement
In sentence improvement, one part of a sentence is bold or underlined. You get three or four replacements plus "No improvement". You pick the option that makes the sentence grammatically correct and clear, or "No improvement" if the bold part is already right.
It uses the same grammar rules as error spotting, but in reverse: you already know where the problem might be, and you must choose the right fix.
It is like choosing a spare part for a machine. The broken part is pointed out. Some spare parts do not fit, some fit but break something else, and one fits perfectly. Sometimes the old part was fine and you should leave it.
Key formulas & rules
The four-step method
- Read the full sentence and ask: is the bold part wrong? Use the seven checks from section 7.
- Name the rule that is broken (tense, agreement, preposition...). If you cannot find one, lean towards "No improvement".
- Eliminate options that keep the same error or add a new one.
- Put your choice back into the sentence and read it once. The right option fixes the error without changing the meaning.
| Frequently tested fix | Wrong (bold part) | Right |
|---|---|---|
| Third conditional | If I would have known, I would have come. | If I had known, I would have come. |
| Since / for + perfect | She is working here since 2018. | She has been working here since 2018. |
| Preposition "to" + V-ing | I am used to wake up early. | I am used to waking up early. |
| Too ... to (already negative) | He is too tired that he cannot walk. | He is too tired to walk. / He is so tired that he cannot walk. |
| Correlative placement | She not only plays the guitar but also the piano. | She plays not only the guitar but also the piano. |
| Dangling modifier | Being a rainy day, we stayed in. | As it was a rainy day, we stayed in. |
| Lest ... should | Walk carefully lest you will fall. | Walk carefully lest you should fall. |
Shortcuts
Compare the options, not the sentence. Look at what differs between the options. If they differ only in "has / have", the question is about agreement; if they differ in "since / for / from", it is about time. The differences tell you which rule is being tested.
Shorter and simpler usually wins when two options are both grammatical, as long as the meaning stays the same. Tests like to reward removing redundancy ("return back", "each and every one of them all").
Solved examples
1. "He has went to the market." (a) has gone (b) had went (c) have gone (d) No improvement
- "Has" + V3. The V3 of "go" is "gone", not "went" (V2).
- (b) keeps "went", (c) has the wrong agreement with "he".
Answer: (a) has gone. Rule: perfect tenses use V3.
2. "If I would have known about the traffic, I would have left early." (a) had known (b) knew (c) have known (d) No improvement
- The main clause has "would have left": an imagined past (third conditional).
- The if-clause of the third conditional takes the past perfect.
Answer: (a) had known. Rule: If + had + V3, would have + V3.
3. "I look forward to meet you soon." (a) to meeting (b) for meeting (c) meeting to (d) No improvement
- In "look forward to", the word "to" is a preposition, not part of an infinitive.
- After a preposition, the verb takes the -ing form.
Answer: (a) to meeting. Rule: preposition + V-ing. Same for "used to (be accustomed)", "object to", "with a view to".
4. "Being a holiday, the office was closed." (a) It being a holiday (b) Having a holiday (c) Been a holiday (d) No improvement
- As written, the phrase says the office was a holiday: a dangling modifier.
- "It being a holiday" gives the phrase its own subject (an absolute phrase).
Answer: (a) It being a holiday. Rule: an opening phrase must describe the subject after the comma, or carry its own subject.
5. "He is so weak that he cannot walk." (a) too weak that he cannot (b) very weak to (c) so weak to (d) No improvement
- "So ... that ... cannot" is a correct pattern.
- (a) mixes "too" with "that"; (b) and (c) are not standard patterns.
Answer: (d) No improvement. Rule: so ... that, or too ... to; never mix them.
Picking an option that fixes one thing and breaks another. For "The list of names are missing", the option "were missing" still disagrees with "list". Check every option fully, not just whether it looks different.
Changing the meaning. An option can be perfectly grammatical and still be wrong because it says something else, for example changing "must" to "may" or "all" to "some". Keep the meaning of the original.
Practice set
Easy"He did not knew the answer." (a) does not knew (b) not knew (c) did not know (d) No improvement
Answer: (c) did not know
Rule: after did / does / do, use V1.
Easy"She is working here since 2018." (a) has been working here since (b) is working here from (c) worked here since (d) No improvement
Answer: (a) has been working here since
The action began in 2018 and is still going on. Rule: since + point of time with present perfect continuous.
Easy"He is too weak to walk." (a) very weak to walk (b) so weak to walk (c) too weak that he cannot walk (d) No improvement
Answer: (d) No improvement
"Too ... to" is correct and already has a negative meaning. Rule: too + adjective + to + V1.
Medium"He prefers tea than coffee." (a) prefers tea over than (b) is preferring tea than (c) prefers tea to (d) No improvement
Answer: (c) prefers tea to
Rule: prefer X to Y; "prefer" never takes "than".
Medium"Hardly had he reached the station than the train left." (a) when (b) that (c) then (d) No improvement
Answer: (a) when
Rule: Hardly / Scarcely ... when; No sooner ... than.
Medium"Unless you do not work hard, you will fail." (a) will not work (b) work (c) did not work (d) No improvement
Answer: (b) work
"Unless" already means "if not"; the condition refers to the future, so simple present. Rule: no "not" after "unless".
Medium"If I would have known about the party, I would have come." (a) knew (b) have known (c) had known (d) No improvement
Answer: (c) had known
Rule: third conditional: If + past perfect, would have + V3.
Hard"Running down the stairs, my bag fell." (a) Running down the stairs, I dropped my bag. (b) My bag fell, running down the stairs. (c) While my bag ran down the stairs, it fell. (d) No improvement
Answer: (a) Running down the stairs, I dropped my bag.
The bag was not running; the person was. Rule: an opening -ing phrase must describe the subject right after the comma (no dangling modifier).
Hard"She not only plays the guitar but also the piano." (a) plays the guitar not only but also the piano (b) plays not only the guitar but also the piano (c) not only plays the guitar but also plays piano also (d) No improvement
Answer: (b) plays not only the guitar but also the piano
"Not only" must stand before "the guitar" so that it matches "but also the piano" (noun with noun). (c) repeats "also". Rule: correlative pairs join parallel parts.
Hard"The scenery of Kashmir are very beautiful and attract many tourists." (a) is very beautiful and attract (b) are very beautiful and attracts (c) is very beautiful and attracts (d) No improvement
Answer: (c) is very beautiful and attracts
"Scenery" is uncountable and singular, so both verbs must be singular: is, attracts. Rule: subject–verb agreement applies to every verb of the subject.
9. Fill in the Blanks
Fill in the blanks gives a sentence with one or two gaps and four options. Some blanks test grammar (the right preposition, tense or verb form). Others test vocabulary: which word fits the meaning of the sentence.
For vocabulary blanks, the sentence always contains a clue: a signal word like "although", "because" or a colon that tells you whether the missing word should agree with the rest of the sentence or go against it.
It is like a detective reading footprints. You do not guess the thief from nothing; the muddy boots and the open window point the way. In a sentence, "although" is the open window: it tells you the second half will turn in the opposite direction.
Key formulas & rules
| Clue type | Signal words | What the blank does | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Contrast | but, although, though, however, yet, despite, unlike, instead, while, far from | Goes the opposite way to the clue | Although he was poor, he was always generous. |
| Cause / effect | because, since, so, therefore, as a result, hence, so ... that | Fits as the cause or the result | The road was crowded, so the bus moved slowly. |
| Support / continuation | and, also, moreover, in addition, similarly, in fact, not only ... but also | Goes the same way as the clue | She is kind and helpful. |
| Definition / explanation | colon (:), dash, that is, in other words, which means | The explanation defines the blank | He is frugal: he never wastes money. |
| Example | such as, for example, for instance, like | The blank is the group the examples belong to | Pulses, such as lentils and chickpeas, are rich in protein. |
Grammar blanks: look at the words right next to the blank. A preposition after it ("fond ___ reading") means a fixed pair; a verb before it may need an adverb; "the number of" needs "is". All the rules from sections 1–6 apply.
Double blanks: solve the easier blank first, eliminate every option whose word does not fit there, then check only the survivors for the second blank.
Tone: decide first whether the blank is positive or negative before looking at the options. This alone removes half the choices.
Shortcuts
Fill it in your own words first. Cover the options, read the sentence and think of any simple word that fits ("good", "bad", "stopped"). Then pick the option closest to your word. This stops tricky options from pulling you in.
For double blanks, test one word per option. If the first blank clearly needs a negative word, cross out every option whose first word is positive. Often only one option survives without even reading the second word.
Grammar before meaning. If an option does not fit grammatically (wrong preposition, wrong part of speech, "a" before a vowel sound), eliminate it straight away even if its meaning looks right.
Solved examples
1. "Although the task was ___, she finished it in ten minutes." (a) simple (b) difficult (c) short (d) easy
- Signal word: "although", which means contrast.
- Finishing in ten minutes is a sign of ease, so the blank must go the opposite way: something that should take long.
Answer: (b) difficult. Simple, short and easy go the same way as the clue, so they cannot follow "although".
2. "The old man was so ___ that he gave all his savings to an orphanage." (a) selfish (b) generous (c) poor (d) greedy
- "So ... that" is cause and effect: the quality caused the action.
- Giving away all savings is caused by generosity.
Answer: (b) generous.
3. "The new flyover was meant to ___ traffic jams, but it actually ___ them." (a) reduce, worsened (b) increase, reduced (c) reduce, ended (d) cause, removed
- First blank: a flyover is "meant to" help, so a positive action like "reduce". This removes (b) and (d).
- "But ... actually" is a contrast: the result was the opposite of the aim. Between (a) and (c), only "worsened" goes against "reduce".
Answer: (a) reduce, worsened.
4. "Neither of the two answers ___ correct." (a) are (b) were (c) is (d) have been
- This is a grammar blank: the subject is "neither", which is singular.
Answer: (c) is. Rule: neither of takes a singular verb.
5. "He is very ___: he never spends money unless he really has to." (a) extravagant (b) generous (c) frugal (d) careless
- The colon introduces an explanation of the blank.
- Someone who spends only when necessary is careful with money.
Answer: (c) frugal (careful and economical with money). Extravagant and careless are the opposite.
The "related but wrong" word. In "The medicine was so ___ that the fever went down in an hour", "bitter" and "expensive" are things medicines often are, so they feel natural. But neither explains why the fever went down. Always check the link the signal word demands, not just whether the word fits the topic.
Missing a hidden contrast. Words like "unlike", "instead of", "far from" and "rather than" signal contrast just as strongly as "but". "Far from being happy, he was ___" needs a negative word.
Practice set
Easy"Although he was tired, he ___ working till midnight." (a) stopped (b) continued (c) refused (d) forgot
Answer: (b) continued
"Although" signals contrast: being tired would make you stop, so the blank goes the other way. Rule: contrast clue, choose the opposite direction.
Easy"The medicine was so ___ that the fever went down within an hour." (a) effective (b) useless (c) expensive (d) bitter
Answer: (a) effective
"So ... that" links a cause to its result; only an effective medicine explains the quick fall in fever. Rule: cause–effect clue.
Easy"She is fond ___ reading novels." (a) in (b) for (c) with (d) of
Answer: (d) of
Rule: fixed pair "fond of".
Medium"His speech was so ___ that many listeners fell asleep." (a) inspiring (b) short (c) dull (d) loud
Answer: (c) dull
Listeners falling asleep is the result of a boring speech. Rule: cause–effect clue ("so ... that").
Medium"Because the road was ___, the bus moved very slowly." (a) empty (b) crowded (c) wide (d) new
Answer: (b) crowded
"Because" introduces the cause of moving slowly; empty, wide and new roads would make it faster. Rule: cause–effect clue.
Medium"The results were ___: not a single student failed." (a) excellent (b) disappointing (c) average (d) mixed
Answer: (a) excellent
The colon introduces an explanation of the blank: nobody failing means the results were very good. Rule: definition/explanation clue.
Medium"Unlike his ___ brother, who talks all day, Arun is quiet and reserved." (a) shy (b) timid (c) lazy (d) talkative
Answer: (d) talkative
"Who talks all day" describes the brother directly, and "unlike" contrasts him with quiet Arun. Rule: contrast clue plus the explaining clause.
Hard"Far from being ___ by the defeat, the team was ___ to win the next match." (a) encouraged, afraid (b) pleased, unwilling (c) disheartened, determined (d) worried, reluctant
Answer: (c) disheartened, determined
"Far from" is a contrast: the first blank must be a natural reaction to defeat (negative) and the second its opposite (positive). Only (c) has negative then positive. Rule: contrast clue in a double blank.
Hard"Her ___ was well known; she gave away most of her earnings to ___." (a) greed, friends (b) generosity, charity (c) honesty, banks (d) wealth, herself
Answer: (b) generosity, charity
The semicolon joins an explanation: giving away earnings shows generosity, and such gifts go to charity. Rule: support/explanation clue; check both blanks.
Hard"The evidence was ___, so the judge had no choice but to ___ the accused." (a) conclusive, convict (b) weak, convict (c) strong, release (d) missing, punish
Answer: (a) conclusive, convict
"So ... had no choice but" is cause and effect: strong, final evidence forces a conviction. (b) and (c) pair a cause with the opposite result; missing evidence cannot force a punishment. Rule: cause–effect clue in a double blank.
10. Para Jumbles
A para jumble gives four to six sentences of a paragraph in a mixed-up order, labelled P, Q, R, S (sometimes with the first and last sentence fixed). You must find the order that makes a logical, connected paragraph.
You do not need to understand the topic deeply. Good paragraphs are held together by links: a pronoun points back to a noun, "however" answers an earlier statement, "this" refers to something already said, a full name comes before its short form. Find the links, and the order builds itself.
It is like putting a train together. Each coach has a hook at the front and a hook at the back. The engine (opening sentence) has no hook at the front. Match each coach's front hook ("he", "this", "however") to a back hook in another coach, and the train lines up.
Key formulas & rules
| Link | Rule | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Opening sentence | Can stand alone: introduces the topic, uses a full name, has no pronoun or connector pointing back | "Honey bees are vital to farming." (not "They pollinate crops") |
| Pronoun link | he / she / it / they / them / its must come after the noun they replace | "Ravi reached the station." then "He bought a ticket." |
| Demonstrative link | this / that / these / such / the same refer to something already mentioned | "...bee numbers have dropped." then "Scientists blame pesticides for this decline." |
| Connector link | however, but, yet (contrast); therefore, as a result, so (effect); also, moreover, further (addition): never in the opening sentence | "Most apps never reach the market." must follow a sentence about apps being made. |
| Full form before short form | The full name with the abbreviation in brackets comes first | "The Goods and Services Tax (GST) was ..." before "The GST replaced ..." |
| Article link | "a / an" introduces a noun; "the" refers to it later | "He saw a dog." then "The dog was hungry." |
| Time sequence | first, then, later, finally, dates, "within five years" | born → studied → joined → promoted |
| General → specific | A general statement comes before its example or detail ("for example" follows) | "Many birds migrate. For example, ..." |
Mandatory pair = two sentences that must sit together, like "X" followed by "This X ..." or a question followed by its answer. Find one mandatory pair and you usually eliminate two or three options at once.
The closing sentence often concludes, sums up or suggests: therefore, thus, in short, hence, "must", "should".
Worked diagram: linking the sentences
Jumbled sentences: P However, most of them never reach the market. Q Every year, students build thousands of new apps. R This is because they lack money and marketing. S As a result, many good ideas are lost.
Shortcuts
Use the options. Para jumbles are MCQs. First find the opening sentence and cross out options that start with anything else. Then find one mandatory pair (e.g. "P must come right after Q") and cross out options that break it. Usually only one option is left, and you never had to order all the sentences yourself.
A sentence starting with a pronoun or a connector can never be first. Scan the first word of each sentence: he, she, it, they, this, these, such, however, but, also, therefore, as a result, then, finally. Those are all "not first" sentences.
Solved examples
1. Which sentence should come first? (a) Therefore, they are called the lungs of the planet. (b) Forests absorb large amounts of carbon dioxide and release oxygen. (c) This is why cutting them down speeds up global warming. (d) They also give shelter to millions of species.
- (a) starts with "Therefore" and uses "they": needs something before it.
- (c) starts with "This" and uses "them"; (d) starts with "They" and has "also".
- Only (b) names the topic (forests) and stands alone.
Answer: (b).
2. First and last sentences are fixed. Arrange P, Q, R, S.
S1: Water is essential for life.
P: Yet, in many cities, a large part of it is wasted through leaking pipes.
Q: Fixing these leaks could save millions of litres every day.
R: Only about 3% of the world's water is fresh water.
S: Of this small amount, much is locked in ice and glaciers.
S6: Saving water must begin at home and in our cities.
(a) RSPQ (b) RPSQ (c) SRPQ (d) PQRS
- "Of this small amount" (S) must follow "Only about 3%" (R): mandatory pair RS. This removes (b), (c) and (d).
- Check the rest: "Yet ... it is wasted" (P) contrasts with how scarce fresh water is, and "these leaks" (Q) needs the leaking pipes of P: pair PQ.
Answer: (a) RSPQ.
3. Arrange: P: After graduating, she joined a small software company in Pune. Q: Priya was born in a village near Nagpur in 1995. R: Within five years, she had become the head of its design team. S: She studied computer science at a college in her district. (a) QSPR (b) QPSR (c) SQPR (d) QSRP
- Q has the full name and a birth date: the opener. This removes (c).
- Life order: born (Q), studied (S), after graduating joined a company (P), within five years became head of "its" team (R). "Its" needs the company in P, so P comes before R. This removes (d).
- (b) puts "After graduating" before she studied, which breaks the time order.
Answer: (a) QSPR.
4. Arrange: P: The GST replaced many older taxes such as VAT and service tax. Q: The Goods and Services Tax (GST) was introduced in India on 1 July 2017. R: As a result, businesses now file one tax instead of several. S: However, small traders at first found the new filing system difficult. (a) QPRS (b) PQRS (c) QRPS (d) QPSR
- Q gives the full form with the abbreviation in brackets: the opener. This removes (b).
- "As a result" (R) must follow the cause, "replaced many taxes" (P): mandatory pair PR. This removes (c) and (d).
- S ("However, ... difficult") adds the drawback at the end.
Answer: (a) QPRS.
Picking the "most general" sentence as the opener when it has a pronoun. "It is the largest democracy in the world" sounds like a great opening, but "it" points back to something. The opener must name its subject in full.
Ordering all sentences yourself before looking at the options. That wastes time and invites mistakes. Two quick checks (opener + one mandatory pair) against the options usually settle the answer in under a minute.
Practice set
EasyWhich sentence should come first? (a) It then spread to other parts of the world. (b) Tea was first grown in China thousands of years ago. (c) Today, it is the most popular drink after water. (d) Later, the British started large tea gardens in India.
Answer: (b)
(a) and (c) begin with a reference to "it", and (d) begins with "Later". Only (b) names the topic and stands alone. Rule: the opener has no pronoun or connector pointing back.
EasyArrange: P: First, the seeds are soaked in water overnight. Q: Growing sprouts at home is simple. R: Finally, the sprouts are ready to eat in two or three days. S: Then they are tied in a wet cloth and kept in a warm place. (a) QSPR (b) PQSR (c) QPSR (d) QPRS
Answer: (c) QPSR
Q introduces the topic; then the sequence words First (P), Then (S), Finally (R). Rule: time-sequence links (first, then, finally).
EasyArrange: A: He bought a ticket and sat down on the platform to wait for the 7 o'clock train. B: Ravi reached the station early in the morning. C: When it finally arrived at 8 o'clock, he boarded it quickly. D: However, an announcement soon said that this train was running an hour late. (a) BDAC (b) ABDC (c) BACD (d) BADC
Answer: (d) BADC
B has the name Ravi (opener); A uses "he" and introduces the train; D ("However ... this train") needs the train of A; C ("it finally arrived") comes last. Rule: pronoun and demonstrative links ("this train" needs the train named in A).
MediumArrange: P: It was founded in 1945, just after the Second World War. Q: The United Nations (UN) is an international organisation. R: The aim of its founders was to prevent another such war. S: Starting with just 51 members, it has now grown to 193. (a) QRPS (b) QPRS (c) PQRS (d) RQPS
Answer: (b) QPRS
Q has the full name with the abbreviation (opener), which removes (c) and (d). "Another such war" (R) needs the Second World War from P, so P comes before R, which removes (a). Rule: full form first; "such" refers back.
MediumArrange: P: This habit, experts say, can harm the eyes and disturb sleep. Q: Many teenagers now spend more than six hours a day looking at screens. R: Simple rules, such as no phones at the dinner table, can help. S: Parents, however, can do a lot to reduce screen time. (a) QSPR (b) PQSR (c) QPRS (d) QPSR
Answer: (d) QPSR
"This habit" (P) must follow the screen habit in Q: pair QP, which removes (a) and (b). "However" in S turns from the problem to the solution, and R gives an example of what parents can do, so S comes before R, which removes (c). Rule: demonstrative link, then general before example.
MediumArrange: P: The shopkeeper, however, refused to take it back. Q: Meena bought a new phone from a local shop last week. R: So she complained to the consumer court, which ordered a full refund. S: Within two days, its screen stopped working. (a) QPSR (b) SQPR (c) QSPR (d) QSRP
Answer: (c) QSPR
Q names Meena and the phone (opener), which removes (b). "Its screen" (S) needs the phone, and the refusal in P needs a problem to refuse, so S comes before P, which removes (a). "So she complained" (R) is the result of the refusal, so P comes before R, which removes (d). Rule: pronoun links and cause before effect.
HardFirst and last sentences are fixed. S1: Honey bees are vital to farming. P: Without them, the yield of these crops would fall sharply. Q: In recent years, however, bee numbers have dropped in many countries. R: They pollinate nearly one-third of the crops we eat. S: Scientists blame pesticides and the loss of wild flowers for this decline. S6: Protecting bees is therefore protecting our food supply. (a) RQPS (b) PRQS (c) QSRP (d) RPQS
Answer: (d) RPQS
R ("They" = bees) introduces the crops; P ("these crops") must follow R. Q ("however") turns to the problem, and S ("this decline") must follow Q. Rule: demonstrative links ("these crops", "this decline") form mandatory pairs RP and QS.
HardArrange: P: He noticed that one of them had grown a mould that killed the germs around it. Q: In 1928, Alexander Fleming returned from a holiday to find his dishes of bacteria spoiled. R: This mould produced a substance that he named penicillin. S: Years later, penicillin became the first widely used antibiotic. (a) QPRS (b) QRPS (c) PQRS (d) QPSR
Answer: (a) QPRS
Q has the full name and date (opener). "One of them" (P) needs the dishes of Q; "This mould" (R) needs the mould of P; S can only come after penicillin is named in R. Rule: pronoun and demonstrative links plus time order ("years later" closes).
HardArrange: P: Its trains were pulled by steam engines, which filled the tunnels with smoke. Q: The world's first underground railway opened in London in 1863. R: Electric trains, introduced in 1890, finally solved this problem. S: Passengers often came out coughing, with soot on their faces. (a) QSPR (b) QPRS (c) QPSR (d) PQSR
Answer: (c) QPSR
Q names the railway (opener), which removes (d). "Its trains" (P) needs Q, which removes (a). S describes the effect of the smoke, and R ("this problem") solves it, so S comes before R, which removes (b). Rule: pronoun link, cause before effect, problem before solution.
11. Vocabulary: Synonyms, Antonyms & Roots
A synonym is a word with the same (or nearly the same) meaning: big and large. An antonym is a word with the opposite meaning: big and small. Test questions give you one word and four options, and ask for the closest match or the clearest opposite.
You cannot memorise the whole dictionary. But most hard English words are built from a small set of Greek and Latin pieces: a prefix at the front, a root in the middle that carries the core meaning, and a suffix at the end that tells you the word type. Learn about 40 roots and 20 prefixes and you can make a smart guess at thousands of words you have never seen.
Think of LEGO. You don't need to memorise every model ever built. If you know what each brick looks like, you can look at a new model and see how it was put together. in + cred + ible is just three bricks: not + believe + able to be = "cannot be believed".
Key formulas & rules
Word = prefix + root + suffix. Read the root first (core meaning), then apply the prefix (not / again / against / before...), then the suffix (person, quality, action).
Synonym question: pick the option closest in meaning and in charge (positive or negative). Antonym question: pick the clearest opposite — never a synonym, never a word that is only "different".
Greek and Latin roots (46 you should know). G = Greek, L = Latin.
| Root | Meaning | From | Example words |
|---|---|---|---|
| bene | good, well | L | benefit, benevolent, benefactor |
| mal | bad, badly | L | malice, malfunction, malnutrition |
| chron | time | G | chronic, chronology, synchronise, anachronism |
| bio | life | G | biology, biography, antibiotic |
| graph / gram | write, draw | G | autograph, calligraphy, telegram |
| tele | far | G | telephone, telescope, telepathy |
| phon | sound | G | symphony, phonetics, microphone |
| port | carry | L | transport, portable, export |
| dict | say, speak | L | predict, contradict, verdict, dictator |
| scrib / script | write | L | describe, manuscript, inscription |
| spect | look | L | inspect, spectator, perspective |
| vid / vis | see | L | evident, visible, vision |
| aud | hear | L | audience, audible, audition |
| duc / duct | lead | L | conduct, educate, deduce |
| ject | throw | L | reject, project, eject |
| mit / miss | send | L | transmit, mission, emit |
| rupt | break | L | erupt, bankrupt, interrupt |
| struct | build | L | construct, structure, instruct |
| voc / vok | call, voice | L | vocal, invoke, advocate |
| cred | believe | L | credible, credit, incredulous |
| fid | faith, trust | L | fidelity, confide, diffident |
| ambi | both | L | ambiguous, ambivalent, ambidextrous |
| anthrop | human being | G | anthropology, philanthropist, misanthrope |
| phil | love | G | philosophy, philanthropy, bibliophile |
| mis(o) | hate | G | misanthrope, misogynist |
| path | feeling, suffering | G | sympathy, apathy, empathy |
| log / logy | word, study of | G | dialogue, logic, geology |
| morph | shape, form | G | metamorphosis, amorphous, morphology |
| omni | all | L | omnipresent, omniscient, omnivore |
| pan | all | G | panorama, pandemic, panacea |
| poly | many | G | polygon, polyglot, polytheism |
| mono | one | G | monologue, monotonous, monarch |
| cide | kill | L | homicide, pesticide, genocide |
| vert / vers | turn | L | convert, reverse, introvert |
| loqu / locu | speak | L | eloquent, loquacious, soliloquy |
| magn | great | L | magnify, magnanimous, magnitude |
| greg | flock, group | L | gregarious, congregate, segregate |
| manu | hand | L | manual, manuscript, manufacture |
| ped / pod | foot | L / G | pedestrian, pedal, tripod |
| terr / geo | earth, land | L / G | terrain, territory, geography |
| aqua / hydr | water | L / G | aquarium, aquatic, dehydrate |
| therm | heat | G | thermometer, thermal, thermostat |
| viv / vit | life, alive | L | vivid, revive, vital |
| mort | death | L | mortal, immortal, mortuary |
| nov | new | L | novel, novice, renovate |
| sci | know | L | science, conscious, omniscient |
Prefixes that change the meaning.
| Prefix | Meaning | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| a- / an- | not, without | amoral, atypical, anarchy |
| in- / im- / il- / ir- | not (sometimes "into") | invisible, impossible, illegal, irregular |
| un- / non- / dis- | not, opposite of | unhappy, nonsense, dishonest |
| mis- | wrongly | misspell, mislead, misjudge |
| anti- / contra- | against | antidote, contradict, contrary |
| pre- / ante- | before | predict, precede, antecedent |
| post- | after | postpone, postgraduate, posthumous |
| re- | again, back | revive, rebuild, recall |
| sub- | under, below | submarine, subordinate, subway |
| super- / hyper- | above, too much | supervise, superfluous, hyperactive |
| hypo- | under, too little | hypodermic, hypothermia |
| inter- / intra- | between / within | international, intranet, intravenous |
| trans- | across | transport, transmit, translate |
| circum- | around | circumference, circumvent, circumspect |
| co- / con- / com- | with, together | cooperate, congregate, compassion |
| de- | down, remove | descend, dehydrate, devalue |
| ex- | out, former | exit, exhale, ex-captain |
| semi- / hemi- | half | semicircle, hemisphere |
Suffixes that tell you the word type.
| Suffix | Meaning | Word type | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| -able / -ible | can be done | adjective | readable, edible, audible |
| -ous / -ose | full of | adjective | courageous, verbose, jealous |
| -ful / -less | full of / without | adjective | careful, careless, fearless |
| -ist / -er / -or / -ant | person who | noun | pianist, teacher, actor, servant |
| -ism | belief, practice | noun | optimism, heroism, realism |
| -ity / -ness / -ment | state, quality | noun | clarity, kindness, judgement |
| -ology | study of | noun | biology, psychology |
| -cracy / -archy | rule, government | noun | democracy, monarchy |
| -phobia | fear of | noun | claustrophobia, xenophobia |
| -ise / -ize / -ify / -ate | to make | verb | modernise, simplify, activate |
| -ly | in this manner | adverb | quickly, happily |
High-frequency test words (these repeat across TCS, Infosys, Wipro, AMCAT papers).
| Word | Meaning | Synonym | Antonym |
|---|---|---|---|
| abundant | more than enough | plentiful | scarce |
| adversity | hard times | hardship | prosperity |
| affluent | rich | wealthy | poor |
| alleviate | make less painful | relieve | aggravate |
| amiable | pleasant, friendly | genial | hostile |
| audacious | boldly daring | bold | timid |
| benevolent | kind, wishing good | kind | malevolent |
| candid | open and honest | frank | evasive |
| concur | agree | agree | differ |
| cordial | warm and friendly | warm | unfriendly |
| dearth | shortage | scarcity | abundance |
| diligent | hard-working and careful | industrious | lazy |
| disparage | speak badly of | belittle | praise |
| eminent | famous and respected | distinguished | unknown |
| ephemeral | lasting a very short time | transient | permanent |
| exacerbate | make worse | aggravate | alleviate |
| exonerate | declare free of blame | acquit | convict |
| feeble | weak | frail | strong |
| frugal | careful with money | thrifty | extravagant |
| gregarious | fond of company | sociable | reclusive |
| hamper | get in the way of | hinder | facilitate |
| impeccable | without fault | flawless | faulty |
| jubilant | very happy | joyful | dejected |
| lethargic | slow and tired | sluggish | energetic |
| loquacious | talking a lot | talkative | taciturn |
| lucid | easy to understand | clear | obscure |
| meticulous | paying great attention to detail | thorough | careless |
| mitigate | make less severe | lessen | aggravate |
| novice | beginner | learner | expert |
| obstinate | refusing to change | stubborn | flexible |
| opulent | showing great wealth | luxurious | shabby |
| placid | calm | tranquil | agitated |
| pragmatic | practical | realistic | idealistic |
| prudent | wise and careful | sensible | rash |
| redundant | no longer needed | superfluous | essential |
| reticent | not saying much | reserved | talkative |
| sagacious | wise, with good judgement | shrewd | foolish |
| scrutinise | examine closely | inspect | overlook |
| tenacious | not giving up | persistent | irresolute |
| trivial | unimportant | petty | significant |
| ubiquitous | found everywhere | omnipresent | rare |
| verbose | using too many words | wordy | concise |
| vindictive | wanting revenge | vengeful | forgiving |
| wane | become smaller or weaker | decline | wax |
| zealous | full of enthusiasm | eager | apathetic |
Shortcuts
Charge test. Before looking at meanings, ask: is the word positive (+) or negative (−)? Malevolent has mal so it is negative. For a synonym keep only options with the same charge; for an antonym keep only the opposite charge. This often removes two options in five seconds.
Pair elimination. If two options mean the same thing (for example aggravate and worsen), neither can be the single correct answer in a synonym or antonym question. Cross both out.
Put it in a sentence. If you half-know a word, recall a phrase you have heard: "a candid interview", "a chronic illness", "ephemeral fame". Then plug each option into that phrase and see which one keeps the meaning.
Solved examples
Example 1 (easy). Choose the synonym of BENEVOLENT: (a) cruel (b) kind (c) greedy (d) lazy
- Break it: bene = good, vol = wish. A benevolent person wishes good to others.
- Charge: positive. (a) and (c) are negative, (d) is negative. Only (b) is positive.
Answer: (b) kind.
Example 2 (easy). Choose the antonym of EPHEMERAL: (a) transient (b) fleeting (c) permanent (d) brief
- Ephemeral means lasting a very short time ("ephemeral fame").
- (a), (b) and (d) all mean short-lived. They are synonyms, so they cannot be the antonym.
- The opposite of short-lived is long-lasting.
Answer: (c) permanent. Shortcut: three options are the same idea, so the odd one out is the answer.
Example 3 (medium). Using roots, what does OMNISCIENT mean? (a) all-powerful (b) present everywhere (c) all-knowing (d) eating everything
- omni = all, sci = know (as in science, conscious).
- So omniscient = knowing everything.
- The other options are its cousins: all-powerful is omnipotent, present everywhere is omnipresent, eating everything is omnivorous.
Answer: (c) all-knowing.
Example 4 (medium). Choose the antonym of LOQUACIOUS: (a) talkative (b) garrulous (c) taciturn (d) verbose
- loqu = speak. Loquacious = talking a lot.
- Talkative, garrulous and verbose all mean "too many words". Cross them out.
- Taciturn means saying very little.
Answer: (c) taciturn.
Example 5 (hard). "The manager was reticent about the reasons for the layoffs, answering every question with a vague smile." The underlined word means: (a) angry (b) reserved (c) confused (d) honest
- Use the context: "answering every question with a vague smile" means he did not give information.
- (d) honest is the opposite of what happened. (a) angry does not fit a smile. (c) confused is not supported, he was avoiding, not lost.
- Reticent = not revealing thoughts or feelings easily.
Answer: (b) reserved.
Example 6 (hard). Choose the word most nearly OPPOSITE in meaning to EXACERBATE: (a) aggravate (b) worsen (c) alleviate (d) intensify
- Exacerbate = make a problem worse ("exacerbate the pain").
- Aggravate, worsen and intensify are all "make worse". Pair elimination removes all three.
- Alleviate = make less severe (the root lev = light, as in lever, levitate: make lighter).
Answer: (c) alleviate.
The synonym hiding in an antonym question. Test makers always put the synonym among the options of an antonym question (and the antonym among options of a synonym question). Read the instruction twice: SAME or OPPOSITE? Underline it on your rough sheet.
Look-alike words. Eminent (famous) is not imminent (about to happen). Diffident (shy, lacking confidence) is not different. Credulous (believes too easily) is not credible (believable). Roots help, but read every letter.
"in-" does not always mean "not". Inflammable means "easily set on fire" (same as flammable), and invaluable means "extremely valuable". When a word is common, trust the meaning you know over the prefix.
Practice set
EasyChoose the synonym of ABUNDANT. (a) scarce (b) plentiful (c) rare (d) empty
Answer: (b) plentiful
Abundant = more than enough. Scarce, rare and empty all point to "too little", which is the opposite.
EasyChoose the antonym of DILIGENT. (a) industrious (b) careful (c) lazy (d) sincere
Answer: (c) lazy
Diligent = hard-working. Industrious is a synonym (trap). Careful is close in charge. Sincere is unrelated. The opposite of hard-working is lazy.
EasyChoose the synonym of CANDID. (a) frank (b) secretive (c) sweet (d) proud
Answer: (a) frank
Candid = open and honest ("a candid answer"). Secretive is the opposite. Sweet (candy) is a sound-alike trap. Proud is unrelated.
MediumChoose the antonym of FRUGAL. (a) thrifty (b) economical (c) extravagant (d) careful
Answer: (c) extravagant
Frugal = spending little. Thrifty and economical are synonyms (pair elimination), careful is near-synonym. Extravagant = spending too much, the opposite.
MediumThe root "chron" in ANACHRONISM refers to: (a) place (b) time (c) order (d) belief
Answer: (b) time
chron = time (chronology, chronic). An anachronism is something placed in the wrong time period, like a mobile phone in a film set in 1850.
MediumChoose the synonym of UBIQUITOUS. (a) rare (b) omnipresent (c) unique (d) hidden
Answer: (b) omnipresent
Ubiquitous = found everywhere ("smartphones are ubiquitous"). Rare, unique and hidden all suggest "hard to find", the opposite idea.
MediumChoose the antonym of MITIGATE. (a) lessen (b) ease (c) aggravate (d) soften
Answer: (c) aggravate
Mitigate = make less severe. Lessen, ease and soften are all synonyms, so the one opposite is aggravate (make worse).
HardChoose the synonym of SAGACIOUS. (a) foolish (b) shrewd (c) talkative (d) timid
Answer: (b) shrewd
Sagacious = having good judgement, wise (think "sage", a wise person). Foolish is the antonym. Talkative and timid are unrelated.
HardChoose the antonym of OBSEQUIOUS. (a) servile (b) fawning (c) haughty (d) submissive
Answer: (c) haughty
Obsequious = too eager to please or obey. Servile, fawning and submissive are all synonyms (three of the same kind means the odd one is the answer). Haughty = proud and looking down on others, the opposite attitude.
Hard"Despite the team's early success, their enthusiasm began to wane as the project dragged on." WANE means: (a) grow (b) decline (c) fluctuate (d) return
Answer: (b) decline
"Despite early success" signals a contrast, and "dragged on" signals boredom, so enthusiasm went down. Grow is the opposite (wax). Fluctuate means going up and down, but the sentence shows only one direction. Return makes no sense here.
12. Idioms & Phrases
An idiom is a group of words whose meaning is different from the meanings of the single words. "It's raining cats and dogs" has nothing to do with animals; it means "raining very heavily". You cannot work idioms out word by word, so you learn them as whole units.
A phrasal verb is a verb plus a small word (up, off, out, in) that together have a new meaning: give up = stop trying, call off = cancel. Tests ask you to pick the meaning of an underlined idiom, or to pick the idiom that fits a blank.
Idioms are like nicknames. Nobody guesses that "Bunty" means "Rajesh" by reading the letters. You just know it because you have heard it used. The more you read and listen, the more nicknames you know.
Key formulas & rules
Meaning is fixed, words are fixed. You cannot swap words in an idiom: it is "a piece of cake", not "a slice of cake"; "the lion's share", not "the tiger's share".
Always check the sentence tone. Most idioms are clearly positive (on cloud nine) or negative (in hot water). The sentence around the blank tells you which you need.
70 high-frequency idioms (sorted A to Z).
| Idiom | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Achilles' heel | a weak spot | Time management is his Achilles' heel. |
| Add fuel to the fire | make a bad situation worse | Shouting back only added fuel to the fire. |
| A blessing in disguise | something bad that turns out to be good | Missing the bus was a blessing in disguise; it crashed later. |
| A hot potato | a controversial issue nobody wants to handle | Fuel prices are a political hot potato. |
| A piece of cake | very easy | The first round was a piece of cake. |
| Apple of one's eye | a person loved very much | Riya is the apple of her grandfather's eye. |
| At the eleventh hour | at the last possible moment | He submitted the form at the eleventh hour. |
| At sixes and sevens | in confusion, disorder | After the move, the office was at sixes and sevens. |
| Back to the drawing board | start again after a failure | The design failed the test, so it's back to the drawing board. |
| Bad blood | hostility between people | There is bad blood between the two neighbours. |
| Barking up the wrong tree | blaming or chasing the wrong person/thing | If you think I took it, you're barking up the wrong tree. |
| Beat around the bush | avoid the main point | Stop beating around the bush and tell me the price. |
| Bite off more than one can chew | take on more than one can handle | With three projects, she bit off more than she could chew. |
| Bite the bullet | face something unpleasant bravely | I bit the bullet and told my boss about the mistake. |
| Blow one's own trumpet | boast about oneself | He never blows his own trumpet, though he topped the class. |
| A bolt from the blue | a sudden, unexpected event | His resignation came as a bolt from the blue. |
| Break the ice | start a conversation in an awkward setting | A joke helped break the ice at the meeting. |
| Burn one's boats | remove any chance of going back | He burnt his boats by resigning before the new offer came. |
| Burn the midnight oil | work or study late at night | Before exams, students burn the midnight oil. |
| By hook or by crook | by any means, fair or unfair | He wanted the contract by hook or by crook. |
| Call it a day | stop working for now | It's 8 p.m.; let's call it a day. |
| Cost an arm and a leg | be very expensive | That phone cost an arm and a leg. |
| Crocodile tears | fake sorrow | The minister shed crocodile tears for the flood victims. |
| Cry over spilt milk | regret what cannot be changed | The exam is over; don't cry over spilt milk. |
| Cut corners | do something badly to save time or money | The builder cut corners, and the roof leaked. |
| Cut a sorry figure | make a poor impression | Unprepared, he cut a sorry figure at the interview. |
| Every cloud has a silver lining | there is hope in every bad situation | Losing the job pushed her to start her firm; every cloud has a silver lining. |
| Face the music | accept the consequences of one's actions | Caught cheating, he had to face the music. |
| A feather in one's cap | an achievement to be proud of | The award is another feather in her cap. |
| A fish out of water | uncomfortable in unfamiliar surroundings | At the fashion show, the engineer felt like a fish out of water. |
| Get cold feet | become nervous and back out | He got cold feet just before the speech. |
| Hand in glove | working closely together (often in something wrong) | The clerk was hand in glove with the smugglers. |
| Head over heels | completely (usually in love) | He fell head over heels for the city. |
| Hit the nail on the head | say exactly the right thing | You hit the nail on the head: the problem is cost. |
| Hit the sack | go to bed | I'm tired; I'll hit the sack early. |
| Hold one's horses | wait, be patient | Hold your horses; the results aren't out yet. |
| In a nutshell | in very few words | In a nutshell, the plan failed because of cost. |
| In hot water | in trouble | He landed in hot water for missing the deadline. |
| In the same boat | in the same difficult situation | All the freshers are in the same boat. |
| Keep one's fingers crossed | hope for a good result | Keep your fingers crossed for my interview. |
| Keep the wolf from the door | earn just enough to avoid hunger | He took two jobs to keep the wolf from the door. |
| Kill two birds with one stone | achieve two things with one action | Cycling to work kills two birds with one stone: exercise and savings. |
| Leave no stone unturned | try every possible way | The police left no stone unturned to find the child. |
| Let the cat out of the bag | reveal a secret by mistake | She let the cat out of the bag about the party. |
| The lion's share | the largest part | The lion's share of the budget goes to salaries. |
| Make ends meet | manage with the little money one has | On a small salary, it is hard to make ends meet. |
| Miss the boat | lose an opportunity | I didn't apply in time and missed the boat. |
| Nip in the bud | stop something at an early stage | The teacher nipped the rumour in the bud. |
| Off the cuff | without preparation | He spoke off the cuff, but it went well. |
| On cloud nine | extremely happy | She was on cloud nine after the offer letter. |
| Once in a blue moon | very rarely | He calls home once in a blue moon. |
| Out of the blue | unexpectedly | An old friend called me out of the blue. |
| Play second fiddle | take a less important role | He refused to play second fiddle to his junior. |
| Pull someone's leg | tease, joke with someone | Relax, I'm only pulling your leg. |
| Put all one's eggs in one basket | risk everything on one plan | Apply to many firms; don't put all your eggs in one basket. |
| Rain cats and dogs | rain very heavily | It rained cats and dogs all night. |
| A red-letter day | a very happy, memorable day | Convocation day was a red-letter day for the family. |
| See eye to eye | agree fully | The partners rarely see eye to eye. |
| Smell a rat | suspect that something is wrong | When the price was too low, I smelt a rat. |
| Spill the beans | reveal secret information | Who spilled the beans about the merger? |
| Steal the show | get the most attention and praise | The youngest dancer stole the show. |
| Take with a pinch of salt | not believe completely | Take online reviews with a pinch of salt. |
| The ball is in your court | it is your turn to act or decide | I've made my offer; the ball is in your court. |
| Throw in the towel | give up, admit defeat | After ten failed attempts, he threw in the towel. |
| Turn a deaf ear | refuse to listen | The owner turned a deaf ear to the tenants' complaints. |
| Turn over a new leaf | change one's behaviour for the better | After the warning, he turned over a new leaf. |
| Under the weather | slightly ill | I'm feeling under the weather today. |
| Up in arms | very angry and protesting | Parents were up in arms over the fee hike. |
| A white elephant | a costly thing that is of little use | The unused stadium became a white elephant. |
| A wild goose chase | a hopeless, pointless search | Looking for a cheap flat in that area was a wild goose chase. |
Phrasal verbs that appear in fill-in-the-blank questions.
| Phrasal verb | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| bring up | raise a child / mention a topic | She brought up the issue of pay. |
| call off | cancel | The match was called off due to rain. |
| carry out | perform, do | The lab carried out ten tests. |
| give in | surrender, stop resisting | The management finally gave in to the demands. |
| give up | stop trying or doing | Never give up before the result. |
| look into | investigate | The manager will look into your complaint. |
| look down on | think someone is inferior | Don't look down on anyone's job. |
| make up for | compensate | He worked on Sunday to make up for lost time. |
| put off | postpone | They put off the meeting till Friday. |
| put up with | tolerate | I can't put up with this noise. |
| run out of | have no more left | We ran out of paper. |
| set up | establish | She set up a small bakery. |
| take after | resemble an older relative | He takes after his father. |
| turn down | reject | She turned down the offer. |
Shortcuts
Picture the scene, then match the feeling. Most idioms come from a real picture: "nip in the bud" is a gardener pinching off a bud before it becomes a flower, so it means "stop early". "Burn one's boats" is an army burning its own boats so it cannot retreat. If you see the picture, the meaning follows.
Reject the literal option. In "choose the meaning" questions, one option is almost always the literal meaning ("to burn oil at midnight"). It is never the answer. Cross it out first.
Learn idioms in families. Secrets: spill the beans, let the cat out of the bag. Rarely/unexpectedly: once in a blue moon, out of the blue, a bolt from the blue. Giving up: throw in the towel, get cold feet. Remembering them in groups halves the effort.
Solved examples
Example 1 (easy). "Getting a seat on that train is a piece of cake." The idiom means: (a) a sweet reward (b) very easy (c) very rare (d) a small share
- The literal option (a) is out.
- "A piece of cake" describes a task that is pleasant and easy to finish.
Answer: (b) very easy.
Example 2 (easy). "The news of the merger came as a bolt from the blue." (a) welcome news (b) a sudden shock (c) a rumour (d) a planned event
- A bolt of lightning from a clear blue sky: nobody expects it.
- So the idiom means a complete surprise. "Planned" is the opposite; "welcome" and "rumour" add ideas that are not there.
Answer: (b) a sudden shock.
Example 3 (medium). Fill in the blank: "The officer was found to be ______ with the smugglers." (a) hand in glove (b) at sixes and sevens (c) in the same boat (d) under the weather
- The sentence needs "secretly working together with".
- At sixes and sevens = confused; in the same boat = sharing a difficulty (not a partnership in crime); under the weather = ill.
Answer: (a) hand in glove.
Example 4 (medium). "The new airport, built at huge cost but hardly used, has become a ______." (a) feather in the cap (b) red-letter day (c) white elephant (d) lion's share
- Clues: "huge cost" and "hardly used".
- A white elephant is exactly a costly possession that is of little use.
- A feather in the cap is positive, which clashes with the tone.
Answer: (c) white elephant.
Example 5 (hard). "Though the committee promised to act, it simply turned a deaf ear to the students' demands." (a) listened carefully (b) partly agreed (c) ignored (d) postponed
- "Though...promised to act" sets up a contrast: the committee did not act.
- Turning a deaf ear = choosing not to listen = ignoring. (d) postponed suggests they would act later, which the idiom does not say.
Answer: (c) ignored.
Mixing up close cousins. Out of the blue = unexpectedly (neutral). Once in a blue moon = rarely (about frequency, not surprise). In the same boat = sharing a problem. Hand in glove = close partners (often in wrongdoing). Match the exact idea the sentence needs.
Changed words. Options like "a slice of cake" or "the tiger's share" are made up. If the wording differs from the fixed idiom, it is wrong in an error-spotting or sentence-improvement question.
Practice set
Easy"He visits his hometown once in a blue moon." The idiom means: (a) every month (b) very rarely (c) at night (d) on festivals
Answer: (b) very rarely
A "blue moon" is a rare event, so the idiom is about low frequency. (a) and (d) are regular times; (c) is the literal trap.
Easy"Before the finals, she burnt the midnight oil." (a) wasted money (b) studied late into the night (c) slept early (d) got angry
Answer: (b) studied late into the night
In old days people burnt oil lamps to work at night. The idiom means working or studying late. (c) is the opposite; (a) and (d) are unrelated.
Easy"Who spilled the beans about the surprise party?" (a) made a mess (b) revealed the secret (c) cancelled the plan (d) arranged the food
Answer: (b) revealed the secret
Spill the beans = reveal secret information. (a) and (d) are literal food traps; (c) is not what the idiom says.
Medium"The rumour was nipped in the bud." (a) spread widely (b) stopped at an early stage (c) proved true (d) written down
Answer: (b) stopped at an early stage
A gardener nips a bud before it can grow into a flower. So the rumour was stopped before it spread. (a) is the opposite.
MediumFill in the blank: "Winning the national award was ______ for the young scientist." (a) a white elephant (b) a feather in her cap (c) a wild goose chase (d) bad blood
Answer: (b) a feather in her cap
The sentence is positive and about an achievement. A feather in one's cap = an honour to be proud of. The other three are negative.
Medium"After years of arguing, the two brothers finally see eye to eye." (a) look alike (b) fully agree (c) avoid each other (d) compete
Answer: (b) fully agree
See eye to eye = have the same opinion. "After years of arguing...finally" signals a change to agreement. (a) is the literal trap; (c) and (d) contradict "finally".
Medium"When the team kept losing, the captain decided to throw in the towel." (a) change strategy (b) give up (c) celebrate (d) blame others
Answer: (b) give up
In boxing, a trainer throws a towel into the ring to stop the fight. So the idiom means admitting defeat.
HardChoose the correct form of the idiom: (a) The tiger's share of profits went to the owner. (b) The lion's share of profits went to the owner. (c) The lion's part of profits went to the owner. (d) The king's share of profits went to the owner.
Answer: (b) The lion's share of profits went to the owner.
Idioms have fixed wording. The fixed form is "the lion's share" = the largest part. Every other option changes a word.
Hard"Rather than face the committee, he tried to shift the blame, but in the end he had to face the music." (a) enjoy a concert (b) accept the consequences (c) escape punishment (d) apologise in public
Answer: (b) accept the consequences
"In the end" after "tried to shift the blame" shows he could not escape. Face the music = accept the unpleasant results of one's actions. (c) is the opposite; (d) is too specific, the idiom says nothing about a public apology.
HardFill in the blank: "She is a gifted singer, but at the concert she had to ______ to the star performer." (a) play second fiddle (b) steal the show (c) break the ice (d) blow her own trumpet
Answer: (a) play second fiddle
"But...had to...to the star performer" shows she took the less important role. Steal the show is the opposite; break the ice and blow her own trumpet do not fit "to the star performer".
13. One-Word Substitution
In one-word substitution you get a long description ("a person who can speak many languages") and must pick the single word that means exactly that (polyglot). It tests whether you know precise words that pack a whole phrase into one.
The good news: the same 150 or so words come up again and again, and most of them follow patterns you already met in roots: -cide is killing, -cracy is rule, -phobia is fear, -logy is study, -ary/-ium is often a place.
It is like a shortcut key on a computer. Instead of clicking through three menus (Edit, then Select, then All), you press Ctrl+A. A one-word substitute is the shortcut key for a whole sentence.
Key formulas & rules
-cide = killing of -cracy = rule by -phobia = fear of -logy / -ology = study of -ary / -ery / -ium = place for in- / im- / ir- + -ible/-able = cannot be done.
People
| Description | One word |
|---|---|
| One who works for the welfare of others, unselfishly | Altruist |
| One who hates mankind | Misanthrope |
| One who loves mankind and gives generously to good causes | Philanthropist |
| One who hates women | Misogynist |
| One who does not believe in God | Atheist |
| One who believes the existence of God cannot be known | Agnostic |
| One who can speak many languages | Polyglot |
| One who loves books | Bibliophile |
| An expert judge in matters of taste (art, food, wine) | Connoisseur |
| One who is new to an activity | Novice |
| One with long experience in a field | Veteran |
| One who eats too much | Glutton |
| One who never drinks alcohol | Teetotaller |
| One who is unable to pay debts | Insolvent / Bankrupt |
| One who does something for pleasure, not as a profession | Amateur |
| One who pretends to be what he is not | Hypocrite |
| One who spends money wastefully | Spendthrift |
| One who hoards money and hates spending it | Miser |
| One who flatters others for personal gain | Sycophant |
| A soldier who fights for any country for money | Mercenary |
| One who leaves his own country to settle in another | Emigrant |
| One who comes into a foreign country to settle there | Immigrant |
| One who looks at the bright side of things | Optimist |
| One who looks at the dark side of things | Pessimist |
| A person fond of fine food and drink | Epicure |
| A person living at the same time as another | Contemporary |
Killing, government and fear
| Description | One word | Description | One word |
|---|---|---|---|
| Killing of a human being | Homicide | Rule by the people | Democracy |
| Killing of one's father | Patricide | Rule by one person with absolute power | Autocracy |
| Killing of one's mother | Matricide | Rule by the rich | Plutocracy |
| Killing of one's brother | Fratricide | Rule by religious leaders | Theocracy |
| Killing of a king | Regicide | Rule by nobles | Aristocracy |
| Killing of an infant | Infanticide | Rule by officials | Bureaucracy |
| Killing of a whole race or group | Genocide | Absence of government | Anarchy |
| Killing of oneself | Suicide | Rule by a king or queen | Monarchy |
| Fear of heights | Acrophobia | Fear of closed spaces | Claustrophobia |
| Fear of water | Hydrophobia | Fear of foreigners | Xenophobia |
| Fear of open or crowded public places | Agoraphobia | Fear of darkness | Nyctophobia |
Study of, and places
| Description | One word | Description | One word |
|---|---|---|---|
| Study of insects | Entomology | Place where birds are kept | Aviary |
| Study of birds | Ornithology | Place where bees are kept | Apiary |
| Study of the origin of words | Etymology | Place where weapons are stored | Arsenal |
| Study of earthquakes | Seismology | Place where grain is stored | Granary |
| Study of mankind | Anthropology | Place where coins are made | Mint |
| Study of family history | Genealogy | Place where aircraft are kept | Hangar |
| Study (collection) of coins | Numismatics | Place where old records are kept | Archives |
| Collection of postage stamps | Philately | Place where monks live | Monastery |
| Study of heavenly bodies | Astronomy | Place where dogs are kept | Kennel |
| Study of the heart | Cardiology | Place where horses are kept | Stable |
| Study of the mind | Psychology | Place where orphans live | Orphanage |
| Study of ancient remains | Archaeology | Place for the dead to be buried | Cemetery |
Speech and writing
| Description | One word |
|---|---|
| Life story of a person written by himself | Autobiography |
| Life story of a person written by someone else | Biography |
| A work whose author is unknown | Anonymous |
| A false name used by a writer | Pseudonym |
| Words written on a tomb | Epitaph |
| A speech made to oneself (in a play), thinking aloud | Soliloquy |
| Concluding part of a book or play | Epilogue |
| Introduction to a book or play | Prologue |
| Repeating word for word | Verbatim |
| Handwriting that cannot be read | Illegible |
| A sound that cannot be heard | Inaudible |
| Happening or published after a person's death | Posthumous |
| Copying another's work and passing it off as one's own | Plagiarism |
| A collection of poems or stories by different writers | Anthology |
| A mild word used in place of a harsh or unpleasant one | Euphemism |
Qualities: cannot be ..., all-...
| Description | One word | Description | One word |
|---|---|---|---|
| That cannot be avoided | Inevitable | All-powerful | Omnipotent |
| That cannot be defeated | Invincible | Present everywhere | Omnipresent |
| That cannot make a mistake | Infallible | All-knowing | Omniscient |
| That cannot be captured by attack | Impregnable | Eating both plants and animals | Omnivorous |
| That cannot be erased or removed | Indelible | Eating only flesh | Carnivorous |
| That cannot be corrected or reformed | Incorrigible | Eating only plants | Herbivorous |
| That cannot be explained | Inexplicable | Living both on land and in water | Amphibious |
| That cannot be repaired | Irreparable | Fit to be eaten | Edible |
| That cannot be reached easily | Inaccessible | Fit to be chosen | Eligible |
| With the agreement of all | Unanimous | No longer in use | Obsolete |
| A cure for all diseases or problems | Panacea | Causing death | Fatal |
Shortcuts
Decode the description into roots. "Fear of heights": fear = -phobia, height = acro (as in acrobat, one who walks on high ropes) = acrophobia. "Rule by the rich": rule = -cracy, rich = pluto (Pluto, the god of wealth) = plutocracy.
Match the grammar of the description. "One who..." needs a noun for a person (-ist, -er, -ant, -ite). "That cannot be..." needs an adjective ending in -ible/-able. "Place where..." needs a noun for a place (-ary, -ery, -ium, -age). This alone knocks out options of the wrong type.
Learn in opposite pairs. Emigrant / immigrant, optimist / pessimist, misanthrope / philanthropist, prologue / epilogue, miser / spendthrift, novice / veteran. Learning one gives you the other free.
Solved examples
Example 1 (easy). One who does not believe in the existence of God: (a) theist (b) atheist (c) agnostic (d) pessimist
- a- = not, theos = God. A-the-ist = one who believes there is no God.
- Theist is the opposite. Agnostic says "it cannot be known", which is not the same as "does not believe".
Answer: (b) atheist.
Example 2 (easy). A place where bees are kept: (a) aviary (b) apiary (c) aquarium (d) granary
- Aviary: avis = bird. Aquarium: aqua = water (fish). Granary: grain.
- Apiary: apis = bee.
Answer: (b) apiary. Memory hook: A-P-iary, "A Place for bees"; A-V-iary, "birds that aVIate (fly)".
Example 3 (medium). Government by the rich: (a) aristocracy (b) autocracy (c) plutocracy (d) bureaucracy
- All four end in -cracy (rule), so the prefix decides.
- aristo = best/noble, auto = self (one person), bureau = office (officials), pluto = wealth.
Answer: (c) plutocracy.
Example 4 (medium). A person who leaves his own country to settle in another: (a) immigrant (b) emigrant (c) refugee (d) migrant
- e- (= ex, out): emigrant goes out of his own country. im- (= in): immigrant comes into a new country.
- Refugee adds "forced to flee"; migrant is general and does not show the direction from one's own country.
Answer: (b) emigrant.
Example 5 (hard). A habit or behaviour that cannot be corrected: (a) incurable (b) incorrigible (c) inevitable (d) indelible
- Incurable is about disease, not behaviour. Inevitable = cannot be avoided. Indelible = cannot be erased (ink, memory).
- Incorrigible (in + corrig, correct) is used for a person or habit that cannot be reformed: "an incorrigible liar".
Answer: (b) incorrigible.
Atheist vs agnostic, emigrant vs immigrant, epilogue vs prologue. These pairs are placed together in options on purpose. Check the exact direction: denies vs cannot know, out of vs into, end vs beginning.
Philately is stamps, not coins. Coins are numismatics. Etymology is word origins, entomology is insects (remember: antomology, "ants are insects").
Practice set
EasyLife story of a person written by himself: (a) biography (b) autobiography (c) monograph (d) anthology
Answer: (b) autobiography
auto = self, bio = life, graph = write. Biography is written by someone else. Anthology is a collection of works by different writers. A monograph is a detailed study of one subject.
EasyHandwriting that cannot be read: (a) illegible (b) ineligible (c) illegal (d) inaudible
Answer: (a) illegible
il = not, leg = read. Ineligible = not qualified. Illegal = against the law. Inaudible = cannot be heard.
EasyKilling of a whole race or group of people: (a) homicide (b) genocide (c) regicide (d) suicide
Answer: (b) genocide
genos = race or kind. Homicide = one person; regicide = a king; suicide = oneself.
MediumFear of closed spaces: (a) acrophobia (b) agoraphobia (c) claustrophobia (d) hydrophobia
Answer: (c) claustrophobia
claustrum = closed place (as in "cloister"). Acrophobia = heights, agoraphobia = open or crowded public places, hydrophobia = water.
MediumOne who hates mankind: (a) philanthropist (b) misogynist (c) misanthrope (d) altruist
Answer: (c) misanthrope
miso = hate, anthropos = human. Philanthropist loves mankind; misogynist hates women only; altruist works for others.
MediumWords written on a tomb: (a) epilogue (b) epitaph (c) epigram (d) episode
Answer: (b) epitaph
taphos = tomb. Epilogue = concluding part of a book; epigram = a short witty saying; episode = one part of a series.
MediumThat which cannot be avoided: (a) invincible (b) inevitable (c) infallible (d) invaluable
Answer: (b) inevitable
Invincible = cannot be defeated; infallible = cannot make a mistake; invaluable = extremely valuable.
HardThe study of the origin and history of words: (a) entomology (b) etymology (c) philology (d) lexicography
Answer: (b) etymology
Etymology is exactly "origin and history of words". Entomology = insects. Philology is the wider study of languages and old texts. Lexicography = writing dictionaries.
HardOne who believes that the existence of God can neither be proved nor disproved: (a) atheist (b) theist (c) agnostic (d) heretic
Answer: (c) agnostic
a = not, gnosis = knowledge: "we cannot know". Atheist denies God; theist believes; heretic holds a belief against the official teaching of a religion.
HardA person who is a flatterer, praising powerful people for personal gain: (a) sycophant (b) connoisseur (c) mercenary (d) stoic
Answer: (a) sycophant
A connoisseur is an expert in taste; a mercenary is a soldier hired for money (the "for gain" part tempts you, but the description is flattery, not fighting); a stoic bears pain without complaint.
14. Commonly Confused Words
Some English words look or sound almost the same but mean different things: stationary (not moving) and stationery (paper, pens). Spell-check will not save you, because both are real words. Tests hide these in error-spotting, fill-in-the-blank and "choose the correctly used word" questions.
The fix is simple: learn each pair together, with one memory hook per pair, and always check the word type (noun, verb, adjective) the sentence needs.
Like identical twins in your class. You tell them apart by one small mark, a mole or a hairstyle. Each confused pair also has one small mark: the e in stationery is for envelopes; the a in stationary is for standing still.
Key formulas & rules
Step 1: find the word type the blank needs (a/an/the before it means noun; after "will/to/can" means verb; describing a noun means adjective). Step 2: pick the member of the pair with that type and meaning.
| Pair | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| affect / effect | affect (v) = influence; effect (n) = result | Stress affects sleep. / Stress has a bad effect on sleep. |
| principal / principle | principal = head of a school, or main; principle = a basic rule or belief | The principal explained the principle of honesty. |
| stationary / stationery | stationary = not moving; stationery = paper, pens | The car was stationary outside the stationery shop. |
| complement / compliment | complement = something that completes; compliment = praise | The sauce complements the rice. / She paid me a compliment. |
| accept / except | accept = receive, agree to; except = leaving out | Everyone accepted the offer except Ravi. |
| advice / advise | advice (n) = suggestion; advise (v) = to suggest | I advise you to take his advice. |
| loose / lose | loose = not tight; lose = fail to keep | If the screw is loose, you may lose it. |
| than / then | than = comparison; then = next, at that time | She is taller than her brother. We ate, then left. |
| its / it's | its = belonging to it; it's = it is / it has | It's clear the dog hurt its paw. |
| their / there / they're | their = belonging to them; there = that place; they're = they are | They're putting their bags there. |
| weather / whether | weather = climate conditions; whether = if | I don't know whether the weather will change. |
| desert / dessert | desert = dry land, or to abandon; dessert = sweet dish | We had dessert in a camp in the desert. |
| council / counsel | council = a body of people; counsel = advice, or a lawyer | The city council sought legal counsel. |
| eminent / imminent | eminent = famous; imminent = about to happen | The eminent doctor warned of imminent danger. |
| elicit / illicit | elicit = draw out; illicit = illegal | The police elicited details of the illicit trade. |
| allusion / illusion | allusion = indirect reference; illusion = false appearance | His speech made an allusion to Gandhi. / The mirror creates an illusion of space. |
| emigrate / immigrate | emigrate = leave one's country; immigrate = enter a new country | They emigrated from India and immigrated to Canada. |
| personal / personnel | personal = private; personnel = staff | Personnel must not make personal calls at work. |
| discreet / discrete | discreet = careful not to reveal; discrete = separate, distinct | Be discreet about salaries. / The data has discrete values. |
| conscience / conscious | conscience (n) = inner sense of right and wrong; conscious (adj) = aware, awake | He was conscious that his conscience was troubling him. |
| moral / morale | moral = about right and wrong, or a lesson; morale = team spirit, confidence | The win boosted the team's morale. |
| later / latter | later = afterwards; latter = the second of two | Of tea and coffee, I prefer the latter. I'll drink it later. |
| quiet / quite | quiet = silent; quite = fairly, completely | The room was quite quiet. |
| breath / breathe | breath (n) = air taken in; breathe (v) = to take in air | Take a deep breath and breathe slowly. |
| lie / lay | lie = recline (no object; lay, lain); lay = put something down (object; laid, laid) | I lie on the bed. / Lay the book on the table. |
| rise / raise | rise = go up (no object); raise = lift something (object) | Prices rise. / The shop raised its prices. |
| beside / besides | beside = next to; besides = in addition to | Besides Asha, who sat beside you? |
| continual / continuous | continual = repeated with breaks; continuous = without any break | Continual interruptions. / A continuous flow of water. |
| economic / economical | economic = about the economy; economical = saving money | Economic growth. / An economical car. |
| historic / historical | historic = famous, important in history; historical = related to the past | A historic win. / A historical novel. |
| industrial / industrious | industrial = of industry; industrious = hard-working | An industrious worker in an industrial town. |
| credible / credulous | credible = believable; credulous = too ready to believe | A credible witness. / A credulous buyer. |
| ingenious / ingenuous | ingenious = clever, inventive; ingenuous = innocent, simple | An ingenious device. / An ingenuous child. |
| judicial / judicious | judicial = of courts and judges; judicious = wise, sensible | A judicial inquiry. / A judicious use of money. |
| human / humane | human = of people; humane = kind, compassionate | Humane treatment of animals. |
| respectful / respective | respectful = showing respect; respective = belonging to each one | The players returned to their respective homes. |
| precede / proceed | precede = come before; proceed = go forward | A speech preceded the dinner; then we proceeded to the hall. |
| prescribe / proscribe | prescribe = recommend (medicine); proscribe = forbid | The doctor prescribed rest. / The drug is proscribed. |
| access / excess | access = entry; excess = more than needed | Excess sugar is harmful. / Access denied. |
| adapt / adopt | adapt = adjust; adopt = take as one's own | They adopted a child and adapted to the new routine. |
| averse / adverse | averse = unwilling, opposed (person); adverse = harmful, unfavourable (thing) | He is averse to risk. / Adverse weather. |
| fewer / less | fewer = countable nouns; less = uncountable nouns | Fewer people, less traffic. |
| between / among | between = two; among = more than two | Split it between the two of us, not among the whole class. |
| imply / infer | imply = suggest (speaker); infer = conclude (listener) | He implied I was late; I inferred he was annoyed. |
| formally / formerly | formally = officially; formerly = earlier, in the past | Mumbai, formerly Bombay, was formally renamed in 1995. |
| hoard / horde | hoard = hidden store; horde = large crowd | A horde of shoppers. / A hoard of gold. |
Shortcuts
Memory hooks for the big four. Principle is a rule. The principal is your pal. Stationery has e for envelopes; stationary has a for standing. Complement completes; compliment is what I say to you.
Noun with c, verb with s. advice (n) / advise (v), practice (n) / practise (v) in British and Indian English. If "a", "the", "my" or "some" comes before it, use the c form.
Expand the apostrophe. For it's, they're, who's, you're: say "it is / they are / who is / you are" in the sentence. If it still makes sense, keep the apostrophe; if not, use its / their / whose / your.
Solved examples
Example 1 (easy). "The new rule will ______ all employees." (a) affect (b) effect (c) affects (d) effected
- After "will" we need the base form of a verb.
- The meaning is "influence", so the verb is affect. (c) has -s, which cannot follow "will". Effect as a verb means "bring about" ("effect a change"), which does not fit "effect all employees".
Answer: (a) affect.
Example 2 (easy). "Please buy some ______ for the office: pens, files and paper." (a) stationary (b) stationery (c) stationeries (d) stations
- Pens, files and paper are writing materials.
- Stationery with e (envelopes). It is uncountable, so no "-ies" plural.
Answer: (b) stationery.
Example 3 (medium). Pick the correctly used sentence: (a) The team's moral was low after the defeat. (b) The team's morale was low after the defeat. (c) The team's morals was low after the defeat. (d) The team's moralle was low after the defeat.
- The idea is team spirit or confidence.
- That is morale. Moral is about right and wrong; (c) also breaks agreement; (d) is a misspelling.
Answer: (b).
Example 4 (medium). "The judge was known for her ______ decisions, always fair and well thought out." (a) judicial (b) judicious (c) judgemental (d) juridical
- "Fair and well thought out" describes wisdom, not just "related to courts".
- Judicious = showing good judgement. Judicial and juridical only mean "related to law or courts"; judgemental means too quick to criticise.
Answer: (b) judicious.
Example 5 (hard). Find the error: "(A) The eminent scientist warned / (B) that a storm was eminent / (C) and asked people / (D) to stay indoors."
- Part (A): eminent scientist = famous scientist. Correct.
- Part (B): a storm cannot be "famous". The meaning needed is "about to happen" = imminent.
Answer: Error in (B); correct it to "that a storm was imminent".
Effect can be a verb too. "To effect a change" means "to bring about a change". It is rare but correct. So do not mark "effect" wrong only because it is a verb; check the meaning.
Lie / lay forms. The past tense of lie (recline) is lay: "Yesterday I lay down." The past of lay (put) is laid: "She laid the plates." "Yesterday I laid down" (with no object) is wrong.
Practice set
Easy"The ______ of our college gave a speech." (a) principle (b) principal (c) principles (d) principality
Answer: (b) principal
The head of a school or college is the principal (your "pal"). A principle is a rule. Principality is a state ruled by a prince.
Easy"I need your ______ on which course to choose." (a) advise (b) advice (c) advices (d) advised
Answer: (b) advice
"your ___" needs a noun, so the c form: advice. It is uncountable, so "advices" is wrong. Advise and advised are verbs.
Easy"These shoes are too ______; I might ______ one on the stairs." (a) lose, loose (b) loose, lose (c) loose, loose (d) lose, lose
Answer: (b) loose, lose
First blank describes the shoes: not tight = loose (adjective). Second blank follows "might", so a verb: lose (fail to keep).
Medium"Her bright scarf ______ her plain dress perfectly." (a) compliments (b) complements (c) complimented (d) complementary
Answer: (b) complements
The scarf completes the look, so complement (with e, "completes"). Compliment means praise, which a scarf cannot give. The sentence is in the present, so (c) is the wrong tense and the wrong word; (d) is an adjective, not a verb.
Medium"The bus remained ______ for an hour due to the jam." (a) stationery (b) stationary (c) static-ly (d) standstill
Answer: (b) stationary
Not moving = stationary (a for standing still). Stationery is paper and pens; "static-ly" is not a word; "standstill" is a noun and would need "at a standstill", so it cannot follow "remained" on its own.
Medium"There were ______ students in class today, so there was ______ noise." (a) less, fewer (b) fewer, less (c) less, less (d) fewer, fewer
Answer: (b) fewer, less
Students can be counted, so fewer. Noise is uncountable, so less.
Medium"The committee refused to ______ the proposal." (a) except (b) accept (c) expect (d) excerpt
Answer: (b) accept
Accept = agree to, receive. Except = leaving out; expect = think something will happen; excerpt = a short extract from a text.
HardChoose the correctly used word: "He was ______ to taking any risk with the company's money." (a) adverse (b) averse (c) adversary (d) aversive
Answer: (b) averse
"Averse to" describes a person who is unwilling. Adverse describes things that are harmful ("adverse effects"). Adversary is a noun (opponent). Aversive means causing dislike (used for a stimulus), not a person's unwillingness.
HardFind the error: (a) The inquiry committee / (b) will try to illicit / (c) the truth from / (d) the witnesses.
Answer: (b) will try to illicit
The meaning needed is "draw out" = elicit. Illicit is an adjective meaning illegal, and cannot follow "to" as a verb. Correct: "will try to elicit".
Hard"The ______ interruptions from the phone, ringing every few minutes, made it impossible to work." (a) continuous (b) continual (c) contiguous (d) continuation
Answer: (b) continual
"Every few minutes" means repeated with gaps in between, which is continual. Continuous means without any break at all. Contiguous means touching or next to (in space). Continuation is a noun, but the blank needs an adjective before "interruptions".
15. Reading Comprehension
Reading comprehension (RC) gives you a passage of 200–400 words and 3–6 questions about it. It checks three skills: can you find a fact that is written there, can you understand what the author is really saying, and can you draw a small, safe conclusion that is not written directly.
The golden rule: every correct answer is supported by the passage. Not by your general knowledge, not by what sounds wise, not by what you believe. If you cannot point to a line that backs your answer, it is probably wrong.
RC is like being a witness in court. The judge does not want your opinion of the case. She wants what you saw, and small conclusions you can defend from what you saw. "He was holding an umbrella, so it was probably raining" is fine. "He is a bad person" is not.
Key formulas & rules
Correct answer = supported by the passage. Wrong answers are usually: too extreme, out of scope, half-right, or true but not what was asked.
| Question type | How it is asked | How to answer |
|---|---|---|
| Main idea / title / primary purpose | "The passage is mainly about...", "The best title is...", "The author's purpose is..." | Look at the first and last paragraphs. Pick the option that covers the whole passage, not one paragraph. Reject options that are too broad or too narrow. |
| Specific detail | "According to the passage...", "The author states that..." | Find the keyword, go to that line, match the meaning (the option often uses different words for the same fact). |
| Inference | "It can be inferred...", "The author would most likely agree...", "The passage suggests..." | Choose the smallest step beyond the text that must be true. Reject anything that needs outside knowledge or a big jump. |
| Vocabulary in context | "The word X most nearly means..." | Replace the word with each option in the sentence. The dictionary meaning is often a trap; the sentence decides. |
| Tone / attitude | "The tone of the passage is...", "The author's attitude towards X is..." | Collect the loaded words (remarkably, sadly, merely, unfortunately). Most exam passages are moderate: prefer "balanced", "analytical", "cautiously optimistic" over extreme tones. |
| True / False / Cannot say | "Which of these is true?", "Is the statement true, false or cannot be determined?" | True = the passage says or clearly means it. False = the passage says the opposite. Cannot say = the passage does not tell you. |
| Structure / function | "Why does the author mention X?", "The second paragraph serves to..." | Ask what role the line plays: example, contrast, evidence, counter-argument, conclusion. |
Tone words you must know.
| Positive | Negative | Neutral |
|---|---|---|
| admiring, appreciative, laudatory (praising), optimistic, enthusiastic, reverent | critical, sarcastic, cynical (distrusting motives), pessimistic, disparaging, indignant (angry at unfairness), satirical | objective, analytical, informative, detached, balanced, matter-of-fact |
Shortcuts
Extreme words are red flags. Options with always, never, only, all, none, completely, must, proves are wrong far more often than options with may, often, some, can, suggests, likely. Passages in exams are usually careful, so the right answer is usually careful too.
Main idea = first paragraph + last paragraph. If you are short of time, read these two carefully and only skim the middle. The author's point is usually stated or restated there.
Answer detail questions last, main-idea questions first. Main-idea questions need the whole picture that is fresh after reading. Detail questions can be looked up any time by scanning for the keyword.
Solved examples
Honeybees tell each other where food is through a movement known as the waggle dance. A forager returning to the hive runs in a straight line while shaking its body, then loops back and repeats the run. The direction of the straight run, measured against the vertical of the honeycomb, shows the direction of the food relative to the sun. The length of the run shows distance: the longer the waggle, the farther the flowers. Remarkably, bees watching the dance in the dark hive decode it by touch and vibration rather than by sight. Scientists once dismissed the idea that insects could share such abstract information; today the waggle dance is regarded as one of the most sophisticated examples of symbolic communication in the animal world.
Example 1 (main idea). The passage is mainly about: (a) why bees prefer flowers near the hive (b) how honeybees use a dance to share the location of food (c) why scientists misunderstand insects (d) how dark the inside of a hive is
- Every sentence is about the waggle dance and what it communicates.
- (a) is never said. (c) is one sentence only and is in the past ("once"). (d) is a small detail.
Answer: (b).
Example 2 (detail). According to the passage, the distance of the food is shown by: (a) the speed of the bee (b) the direction of the run (c) the length of the run (d) the number of loops
- Keyword "distance". Proof line: "The length of the run shows distance."
- (b) direction shows direction, not distance. (a) and (d) are not mentioned.
Answer: (c).
Example 3 (inference). It can be inferred that bees inside the hive: (a) need light to understand the dance (b) can understand the dance without seeing it (c) cannot tell direction in the dark (d) only follow bees they know
- Proof line: "bees watching the dance in the dark hive decode it by touch and vibration rather than by sight".
- If they decode it in the dark by touch, they do not need to see it. That is a small, safe step. (a) and (c) contradict the line; (d) is not supported.
Answer: (b).
Example 4 (vocabulary in context). "Scientists once dismissed the idea..." Dismissed most nearly means: (a) fired from a job (b) rejected as not worth considering (c) sent away from a class (d) forgot
- (a) and (c) are real meanings of "dismiss", but you cannot fire or send away an "idea".
- The contrast with "today ... is regarded as one of the most sophisticated" shows scientists used to reject the idea.
Answer: (b).
Example 5 (tone). The author's tone is best described as: (a) admiring (b) critical (c) humorous (d) indifferent
- Loaded words: "Remarkably", "most sophisticated".
- These show admiration for the bees. Nothing is criticised or joked about, and "remarkably" rules out indifference.
Answer: (a) admiring.
True in real life but not in the passage. An option may be a fact you know from school ("bees make honey from nectar"). If the passage does not say it or clearly mean it, it is not the answer, especially in "according to the passage" questions.
The half-right option. The first half matches the passage word for word; the second half adds a claim the passage never makes ("...and therefore bees are smarter than mammals"). One wrong part makes the whole option wrong.
Too narrow for a main-idea question. A true detail from paragraph 2 is not the main idea of a three-paragraph passage. Ask: does this option cover every paragraph?
Practice set
On a summer afternoon, the centre of a large city can be several degrees hotter than the farmland around it. This effect, called the urban heat island, happens because concrete, asphalt and brick absorb sunlight during the day and release it slowly at night. Tall buildings trap this heat, and air conditioners, vehicles and factories add more. As a result, cities not only swelter during the day but also fail to cool down after dark, which is when heat is most dangerous for the elderly and the sick.
Planting trees is one of the cheapest ways to fight the problem. A mature tree cools its surroundings in two ways: its canopy shades the ground, and its leaves release water vapour, which absorbs heat as it evaporates. Studies in several cities have found that streets lined with trees can be noticeably cooler than bare streets nearby. Shade also keeps walls and roofs cooler, so the buildings behind the trees need less air conditioning.
Yet trees are not a magic cure. They take years to grow, need water and care, and are often cut down when roads are widened. Poorer neighbourhoods, which usually have the fewest trees, also tend to have the least money to plant and maintain them. Some planners therefore argue that cities must combine greenery with other measures, such as light-coloured "cool roofs" that reflect sunlight, and building rules that leave space for air to flow. The heat island, they say, was built by human choices, and it can be reduced by better ones.
EasyPassage 1. Which is the best title for the passage? (a) Why Cities Stay Hot and How to Cool Them (b) The History of Air Conditioning (c) Trees: The Only Solution to Urban Heat (d) Why Farmland Is Hotter Than Cities
Answer: (a) Why Cities Stay Hot and How to Cool Them
Paragraph 1 explains the cause, paragraphs 2–3 discuss solutions, so (a) covers everything. (b) is out of scope. (c) is too extreme: the author says trees are "not a magic cure". (d) reverses the fact in the first sentence.
EasyPassage 1. According to the passage, trees cool their surroundings by: (a) reflecting sunlight from their bark (b) providing shade and releasing water vapour (c) blocking hot winds from farmland (d) absorbing heat from concrete at night
Answer: (b) providing shade and releasing water vapour
Proof line: "its canopy shades the ground, and its leaves release water vapour, which absorbs heat as it evaporates". Reflecting sunlight is what cool roofs do, not trees; (c) and (d) are never mentioned.
MediumPassage 1. In the first paragraph, the word "swelter" most nearly means: (a) suffer from great heat (b) grow quickly (c) become crowded (d) freeze
Answer: (a) suffer from great heat
The paragraph is entirely about cities being hot, and "swelter during the day" is contrasted with "fail to cool down after dark". (d) is the opposite; (b) and (c) do not fit the heat theme.
MediumPassage 1. What can be inferred about poorer neighbourhoods? (a) They have more cool roofs than richer areas. (b) They are likely to find it harder to increase their tree cover. (c) They are cooler at night than richer areas. (d) Their residents do not want trees.
Answer: (b) They are likely to find it harder to increase their tree cover.
They "have the fewest trees" and "the least money to plant and maintain them", so adding trees will be harder for them. (a) and (c) are never stated. (d) confuses "cannot afford" with "do not want".
HardPassage 1. The author's attitude towards tree planting is best described as: (a) dismissive (b) supportive but aware of its limits (c) uncritically enthusiastic (d) hostile
Answer: (b) supportive but aware of its limits
Trees are "one of the cheapest ways to fight the problem" (supportive), yet "not a magic cure" (limits). (a) and (d) ignore the praise; (c) ignores the third paragraph.
Most students prepare for exams the same way: they read a chapter again and again the night before, then feel confident because the material looks familiar. Psychologists call this feeling the "illusion of fluency". Recognising a page is not the same as being able to recall it on your own, and the exam asks for recall.
Two techniques work far better, according to more than a century of research. The first is spacing. In the 1880s, the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus memorised lists of nonsense syllables and tested himself at different intervals. He found that memory fades quickly at first and then more slowly, and that each review made the next forgetting slower. Reviews spread over several days, therefore, produce stronger memories than the same number of reviews crammed into one evening.
The second technique is retrieval practice: testing yourself instead of rereading. When you struggle to pull an answer out of memory, the effort itself strengthens the memory. In many experiments, students who spent part of their study time taking practice quizzes remembered more a week later than students who spent all of that time rereading, even though the rereaders felt better prepared. Even a quiz question that a student gets wrong helps, as long as the correct answer is checked afterwards.
Neither method feels pleasant. Spaced, effortful practice is slower and produces more mistakes during study. But that difficulty is the point. A learner who judges progress by how easy study feels will choose the wrong method almost every time.
EasyPassage 2. The primary purpose of the passage is to: (a) describe the life of Hermann Ebbinghaus (b) explain why a common study habit fails and suggest better methods (c) argue that exams should be abolished (d) prove that nonsense syllables are hard to learn
Answer: (b) explain why a common study habit fails and suggest better methods
Paragraph 1 shows the problem with rereading; paragraphs 2–4 give spacing and retrieval practice. (a) and (d) are small details used as evidence. (c) is never suggested.
EasyPassage 2. The "illusion of fluency" refers to: (a) the ability to speak many languages (b) false confidence that comes from finding material familiar (c) fear of failing an exam (d) the skill of reading quickly
Answer: (b) false confidence that comes from finding material familiar
The passage defines it right after "feel confident because the material looks familiar". The word "illusion" tells you the confidence is false. (a) and (d) take "fluency" in its everyday sense; (c) is not mentioned.
MediumPassage 2. According to the passage, Ebbinghaus found that: (a) memory fades at a steady rate (b) memory fades quickly at first and then more slowly (c) reviews make no difference to forgetting (d) nonsense syllables are never forgotten
Answer: (b) memory fades quickly at first and then more slowly
Direct quote: "memory fades quickly at first and then more slowly". (a) contradicts "quickly at first"; (c) contradicts "each review made the next forgetting slower"; (d) is extreme and unsupported.
HardPassage 2. With which statement would the author most likely agree? (a) If studying feels easy, it is probably effective. (b) Making mistakes during practice can be part of effective learning. (c) Rereading the night before is the best way to prepare. (d) Practice quizzes help only weak students.
Answer: (b) Making mistakes during practice can be part of effective learning.
The author says effortful practice "produces more mistakes during study. But that difficulty is the point." (a) is exactly the thinking the last sentence warns against. (c) is the habit the passage criticises. (d) adds a limit ("only weak students") that the passage never gives.
HardPassage 2. Statement: "In the experiments, students who took practice quizzes felt better prepared than students who only reread." Based on the passage, this statement is: (a) True (b) False (c) Cannot be determined from the passage (d) True only for spaced reviews
Answer: (b) False
The passage says the quiz-takers remembered more, "even though the rereaders felt better prepared". So the passage directly states the opposite of the claim, which makes it False, not "cannot be determined". (d) invents a condition.
16. Verbal Critical Reasoning
Critical reasoning (CR) gives you a short argument of 2–4 sentences and asks you to judge it: find its conclusion, find the hidden belief it depends on (the assumption), or pick the fact that would make it stronger or weaker. Companies like Infosys, Accenture and Capgemini use it because it tests how you think, not what you have memorised.
Every argument has the same shape: premises (the reasons given) lead to a conclusion (the claim). Between them there is usually a gap that the author fills silently with an assumption. Almost every CR question is really a question about that gap.
An argument is a bridge across a river. The premises are the near bank, the conclusion is the far bank, and the assumption is the plank in the middle that nobody mentions. To strengthen, you nail the plank down. To weaken, you pull it out. To find the assumption, you just name the plank.
Key formulas & rules
Argument = Premises + (hidden) Assumption → Conclusion.
Negation test for assumptions: turn the option into its opposite. If the argument now falls apart, the option is a real (necessary) assumption. If the argument survives, it is not.
Conclusion indicators: therefore, so, thus, hence, clearly, it follows that, consequently. Premise indicators: because, since, as, given that, for.
| Question type | Typical wording | What the right answer does |
|---|---|---|
| Conclusion / main point | "Which best states the conclusion?" | States the claim that the other sentences support. Ask "why should I believe this?" If another sentence answers, this is the conclusion. |
| Assumption | "The argument assumes...", "depends on..." | Fills the gap. Passes the negation test. Usually modest, not extreme. |
| Strengthen | "Which, if true, most strengthens..." | Adds new support to the gap, often by ruling out another explanation. |
| Weaken | "Which, if true, most weakens / casts doubt..." | Attacks the gap: another cause, a biased sample, an unfair comparison. It need not destroy the argument, only make it less likely. |
| Inference / must be true | "Which can be properly inferred...", "must be true..." | Follows from the statements with no outside help. Stay close to the text. Any new idea is a trap. |
Common gaps (and so, common weakeners).
| Gap | Example | How to weaken |
|---|---|---|
| Correlation taken as cause | People who drink green tea are slimmer, so green tea makes you slim. | Show a third factor (tea drinkers also exercise more) or reverse cause. |
| Alternative cause ignored | Crime fell after new street lights, so the lights cut crime. | Show something else changed at the same time (more police patrols). |
| Unrepresentative sample | 90% of our app users love it, so the public will love it. | Show the sample was special (only loyal users answered). |
| Unfair comparison | It worked for City A, so it will work for City B. | Show A and B differ in a way that matters. |
| Plan may not work / has side effects | Raise fines, and people will stop littering. | Show people will not change, or cannot (no dustbins). |
Shortcuts
Read the question stem first. Knowing you are looking for a weakener makes you read the argument hunting for its gap. It saves a second reading.
Out of scope = out. Options that talk about something the argument does not (a different product, a different time, "how popular" when the argument is about "how effective") do not strengthen or weaken. Cut them first; usually two go.
For inference, pick the boring option. The right inference is often dull and nearly a restatement. The exciting, sweeping option ("this proves...", "all...") is a trap.
Solved examples
Example 1 (conclusion, easy). "Online courses let students replay lectures as often as needed. They also cost less than classroom courses and can be taken from anywhere. Therefore, more working adults should consider online courses for upskilling." The conclusion is: (a) Online courses cost less. (b) Lectures can be replayed. (c) More working adults should consider online courses for upskilling. (d) Classroom courses are useless.
- "Therefore" signals the conclusion.
- (a) and (b) are reasons (premises). (d) is extreme and never said.
Answer: (c).
Example 2 (assumption, medium). "Ravi scored 95% in the mock test, so he will clear the placement aptitude round." The argument assumes: (a) Ravi studied hard. (b) The mock test reflects the level and pattern of the real round. (c) Ravi has taken many mock tests. (d) Most students score below 95%.
- Gap: from "mock score" to "real result". The author must believe the mock predicts the real test.
- Negation test on (b): "The mock test does NOT reflect the real round." Then 95% tells us nothing, and the argument collapses. So (b) is needed.
- Negate (a): "Ravi did not study hard." He still scored 95%, so the argument survives. Negate (c) or (d): the argument also survives.
Answer: (b).
Example 3 (weaken, medium). "Since the city started a helmet-awareness campaign in January, head injuries in two-wheeler accidents have fallen by 30%. So the campaign has made riders safer." Which most weakens this? (a) The campaign was widely advertised on radio. (b) In January, the city also began heavy fines for riding without a helmet. (c) Head injuries are the most serious injuries in accidents. (d) Many riders said they liked the campaign ads.
- Gap: nothing else caused the fall.
- (b) gives another cause at the same time: fines, not the campaign, may explain the change.
- (a) and (d) are about how well-known or liked the campaign was, not whether it caused the fall. (c) only says why the fall matters.
Answer: (b) (alternative cause).
Example 4 (strengthen, medium). Same argument as Example 3. Which most strengthens it? (a) A nearby city with similar traffic and no campaign saw no fall in head injuries in the same period. (b) The campaign cost ₹40 lakh. (c) Two-wheeler sales rose in the year. (d) Some riders still do not wear helmets.
- To strengthen, rule out "it would have happened anyway".
- (a) is a control group: without the campaign, no fall. That supports the campaign as the cause.
- (b) is irrelevant. (c) does not explain a fall in injuries. (d) slightly weakens.
Answer: (a).
Example 5 (inference, hard). "All employees who completed the safety training received a badge. Meena, an employee, did not receive a badge." Which must be true? (a) Meena did not complete the safety training. (b) Meena failed the training test. (c) Meena will receive a badge next year. (d) The training was optional.
- Rule: completed → badge. So no badge → not completed (the contrapositive).
- (b) is too specific: she may never have started. (c) and (d) are not supported by anything.
Answer: (a).
Reversing the rule. "All who completed got a badge" does NOT mean "all who got a badge completed". Someone could get a badge for another reason. Only the contrapositive (no badge → not completed) is safe.
Picking a premise as the conclusion. A sentence can be true and important and still be a reason, not the claim. The conclusion is the one sentence that the others are there to prove.
Using outside knowledge. In CR, every option "if true" must be accepted as true. Don't reject a weakener because you think it is unlikely in real life.
Practice set
Easy"Regular exercise improves sleep quality. It also lowers stress and helps control weight. Therefore, busy professionals should make time for exercise even on work days." The main conclusion is: (a) Exercise lowers stress. (b) Exercise improves sleep quality. (c) Busy professionals should make time for exercise even on work days. (d) Work days are stressful.
Answer: (c) Busy professionals should make time for exercise even on work days.
"Therefore" introduces it, and the first two sentences are reasons for it. (a) and (b) are premises; (d) is not stated.
Easy"The café has started offering free Wi-Fi, so it will attract more students." The argument assumes that: (a) students value free Wi-Fi when choosing a café (b) the café's coffee is cheap (c) no other café nearby has Wi-Fi (d) students do not drink coffee
Answer: (a) students value free Wi-Fi when choosing a café
Negate (a): students don't care about Wi-Fi. Then Wi-Fi won't attract them, so the argument fails. Negating (c) (other cafés also have Wi-Fi) does not destroy the argument; the café could still draw more students than before. (b) is irrelevant and (d) would hurt the café, not support the argument.
Easy"Sales of umbrellas at the store doubled in July. The manager concludes that the new window display caused the increase." Which most weakens the conclusion? (a) The display was designed by a famous artist. (b) July was the rainiest month in the city in ten years. (c) Umbrella prices were unchanged in July. (d) The store also sells raincoats.
Answer: (b) July was the rainiest month in the city in ten years.
Heavy rain is another cause that easily explains more umbrella sales. (a) is about the display's designer, not its effect. (c) removes one other cause (price cut), so it slightly strengthens. (d) is irrelevant.
Medium"Employees who work from home one day a week report higher job satisfaction. So allowing a work-from-home day raises satisfaction." Which most strengthens this? (a) Employees who chose the work-from-home day were already more satisfied before the policy began. (b) When the same employees were surveyed before and after getting the day, their satisfaction rose afterwards. (c) Some employees prefer working in the office. (d) The company has 500 employees.
Answer: (b) When the same employees were surveyed before and after getting the day, their satisfaction rose afterwards.
A before-and-after rise in the same people links the policy to the change. (a) is a weakener: the happy people chose the option, so the policy may not have caused anything. (c) and (d) are out of scope.
Medium"Every train on the Blue Line stops at Central Station. The 8:15 train does not stop at Central Station." Which must be true? (a) The 8:15 is not a Blue Line train. (b) The 8:15 is a Red Line train. (c) Central Station is closed. (d) The 8:15 is running late.
Answer: (a) The 8:15 is not a Blue Line train.
Blue Line → stops at Central. Does not stop → not Blue Line (contrapositive). (b) is too specific: it could be any other line. (c) and (d) are not supported; if Central were closed, Blue Line trains would not stop there either, which contradicts "every train on the Blue Line stops".
Medium"Plastic bags make up a large share of the city's plastic waste. So a ban on plastic bags will sharply reduce the city's plastic waste." The argument depends on which assumption? (a) Shoppers will not simply switch to other single-use plastic items in place of bags. (b) All of the city's plastic waste comes from bags. (c) Paper bags cost more than plastic bags. (d) Shop owners will welcome the ban.
Answer: (a) Shoppers will not simply switch to other single-use plastic items in place of bags.
Negate (a): shoppers switch to other single-use plastics. Then total plastic waste may not fall, and the argument breaks. (b) is too extreme: "a large share" is enough for the argument. (c) and (d) do not affect how much plastic waste there is.
Medium"Students who use the college library more often get higher grades. Therefore, using the library causes better grades." Which most weakens this? (a) Students who are more motivated both use the library more and study harder in general. (b) The library has 50,000 books. (c) Grades rose across the college last year. (d) Some students prefer to study at home.
Answer: (a) Students who are more motivated both use the library more and study harder in general.
A third factor (motivation) explains both library use and grades, so the library may not be the cause. (b) and (d) are irrelevant. (c) is about all students and does not separate library users from others.
Hard"A diet app reports that its users lost an average of 5 kg in three months. So the app is effective for weight loss." Which most weakens this? (a) The average was calculated only from users who kept using the app for all three months; those who quit were not counted. (b) The app is free to download. (c) Many users recommend the app to friends. (d) Losing 5 kg in three months is considered healthy.
Answer: (a) The average was calculated only from users who kept using the app for all three months; those who quit were not counted.
This is a biased sample: people who were not losing weight are likely the ones who quit, which inflates the average. (b) is irrelevant; (c) mildly strengthens; (d) is about whether the loss is healthy, not whether the app caused it.
Hard"Our competitor cut its prices by 10% and its sales rose 25%. If we cut our prices by 10%, our sales will also rise 25%." The argument assumes: (a) Our customers respond to price cuts in the same way as the competitor's customers. (b) The competitor is a larger company than ours. (c) Cutting prices reduces profit on each item. (d) The competitor's sales rose only because of a new advertising campaign.
Answer: (a) Our customers respond to price cuts in the same way as the competitor's customers.
This is an unfair-comparison gap. Negate (a): our customers react differently, so the 25% prediction fails. (b) and (c) do not bridge the gap. (d) would weaken the argument, and an assumption never weakens its own argument.
Hard"In a survey of 1,000 graduates, 60% had done an internship. Of these, 70% got a job within six months. Of those without an internship, 40% got a job within six months." Which must be true? (a) More than half of all surveyed graduates got a job within six months. (b) Internships cause graduates to get jobs. (c) Most graduates who got jobs had not done an internship. (d) Exactly 70% of all surveyed graduates got jobs within six months.
Answer: (a) More than half of all surveyed graduates got a job within six months.
Internship group: 600 graduates, 70% = 420 got jobs. Others: 400 graduates, 40% = 160 got jobs. Total = 580 of 1,000 = 58%, which is more than half. (c) is false: 420 of the 580 jobs went to interns. (d) is false: 58%, not 70%. (b) is a causal claim that survey data alone cannot prove (motivated students may do both).
Grammar Rules Cheat Sheet
Every grammar rule from this page on one screen. Use it the night before a test, and after each mock: for every grammar question you got wrong, find its row here and say the rule out loud once.
A pilot's checklist. The pilot knows how to fly, but still runs down the list before take-off because it catches the one thing that slips under pressure.
Parts of speech
| Part | Job | Examples | Quick check |
|---|---|---|---|
| Noun | names a person, place, thing, idea | Riya, Delhi, table, honesty | Can take "a/the" before it |
| Pronoun | replaces a noun | he, they, which, myself | Must agree with its noun in number and gender |
| Verb | action or state | run, is, seem, have | Changes with tense |
| Adjective | describes a noun | tall, three, careful | Answers "which / what kind / how many" |
| Adverb | describes a verb, adjective or adverb | quickly, very, often | Answers "how / when / where / how much" |
| Preposition | links a noun to the rest of the sentence | in, on, at, by, with | Followed by a noun or pronoun (object case: "with me") |
| Conjunction | joins words or clauses | and, but, because, although | Don't double up: "although ... but" is wrong |
| Interjection | shows sudden feeling | oh, alas, wow | Usually followed by "!" |
Tenses
| Tense | Simple | Continuous | Perfect | Perfect continuous |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Present | V1 / V1+s: She writes. | am/is/are + V-ing: She is writing. | has/have + V3: She has written. | has/have been + V-ing: She has been writing for an hour. |
| Past | V2: She wrote. | was/were + V-ing: She was writing. | had + V3: She had written. | had been + V-ing: She had been writing. |
| Future | will + V1: She will write. | will be + V-ing: She will be writing. | will have + V3: She will have written. | will have been + V-ing: She will have been writing. |
| Rule | Right | Wrong |
|---|---|---|
| Since + point of time; for + length of time, with a perfect tense | I have lived here since 2019 / for five years. | I am living here since 2019. |
| No "will" in a time or if-clause about the future | When he comes, I will tell him. | When he will come, I will tell him. |
| A definite past time (yesterday, in 2020, ago) takes simple past, not present perfect | I met him yesterday. | I have met him yesterday. |
| Stative verbs (know, believe, understand, own, belong, prefer) are not used in continuous forms | I know the answer. | I am knowing the answer. |
| Of two past actions, the earlier one takes past perfect | When we reached the station, the train had already left. | When we reached the station, the train already left. |
| Imaginary present: "If I were", "wish + past" | If I were rich... / I wish I knew. | If I was rich... (in formal tests) |
| It is high time / It is time + past simple | It is high time we left. | It is high time we leave. |
| Hardly / Scarcely ... when; No sooner ... than (with inversion at the start) | No sooner had he left than it rained. | No sooner had he left when it rained. |
| Conditionals | Type 1: If + present, will + V1 (If it rains, we will stay.) · Type 2: If + past, would + V1 (If it rained, we would stay.) · Type 3: If + had + V3, would have + V3 (If it had rained, we would have stayed.) | |
Subject–verb agreement
| Rule | Example |
|---|---|
| Two subjects joined by and → plural verb | Ram and Shyam are friends. |
| ... unless they name one person or one idea | The secretary and treasurer is here. Bread and butter is my breakfast. |
| Either/neither ... or/nor; not only ... but also → verb agrees with the nearer subject | Neither the teacher nor the students were late. |
| as well as, along with, together with, with, besides, in addition to → verb agrees with the first subject | The captain, along with his players, was present. |
| Each, every, either, neither, everyone, nobody, somebody → singular | Each of the boys has a bag. Everyone is ready. |
| One of the + plural noun + singular verb | One of the students is absent. |
| A number of + plural; the number of + singular | A number of people were hurt. The number of cars is rising. |
| Many a + singular noun + singular verb | Many a student has failed this paper. |
| Amount of money, time, distance as one unit → singular | Ten kilometres is a long walk. Five lakh rupees is a big sum. |
| Plural-looking singular nouns: news, mathematics, physics, economics (subject), measles | The news is good. |
| Always plural: scissors, trousers, spectacles, cattle, police, people | The police have arrived. The cattle are grazing. |
| Uncountable, no plural form: information, advice, furniture, luggage, equipment, machinery, scenery | The furniture is new. (not "furnitures") |
| Collective noun: singular when the group acts as one, plural when members act separately | The jury has given its verdict. The jury were divided in their opinions. |
| Relative pronoun takes the verb of its antecedent | It is I who am to blame. |
| Intervening phrases don't change the subject | The box of chocolates is on the table. |
Articles
| Rule | Example |
|---|---|
| a / an depends on the first sound, not the letter | an hour, an honest man, an MBA, a university, a European, a one-rupee coin |
| the with unique things, superlatives, ordinals | the sun, the best player, the first day |
| the with rivers, seas, oceans, mountain ranges, groups of islands, deserts | the Ganga, the Indian Ocean, the Himalayas, the Andamans, the Thar |
| the with newspapers, holy books, musical instruments | The Hindu, the Gita, plays the guitar |
| the + adjective = a whole class of people (plural verb) | The rich are not always happy. |
| the with country names that are plural or contain Republic, Kingdom, States | the USA, the UK, the Netherlands |
| No article: single mountains, most countries, cities, languages, meals, games, abstract nouns in general | Mount Everest, India, Hindi, lunch, cricket, Honesty is the best policy. |
| No article with school, church, hospital, bed, prison used for their main purpose | He went to school (to study). He went to the school (to meet the principal). |
Prepositions
| Rule | Example |
|---|---|
| at exact time and point; on days and dates; in months, years, seasons, parts of the day | at 6 p.m., on Monday, on 5 June, in May, in 2024, in the evening (but: at night) |
| between (two), among (more than two) | between you and me; among the five friends |
| in (position), into (movement inside) | He is in the room. He walked into the room. |
| beside (next to), besides (in addition to) | Sit beside me. Besides maths, he teaches physics. |
| by (doer, in passive), with (instrument) | The letter was written by Ravi with a pen. |
| No preposition after: discuss, reach (a place), enter (a place), resemble, attack, order (someone), request (as a verb), emphasise | We discussed the plan. (not "discussed about") |
| Fixed pairs | ||
|---|---|---|
| afraid of | accused of | capable of |
| consist of | charged with | comply with |
| congratulate on | depend on | insist on |
| prefer to | superior / inferior to | senior / junior to |
| married to | good at | interested in |
| prevent from | different from | abide by |
Active & passive voice
| Tense | Active | Passive pattern | Passive |
|---|---|---|---|
| Present simple | She writes a letter. | is/am/are + V3 | A letter is written by her. |
| Present continuous | She is writing a letter. | is/am/are being + V3 | A letter is being written by her. |
| Present perfect | She has written a letter. | has/have been + V3 | A letter has been written by her. |
| Past simple | She wrote a letter. | was/were + V3 | A letter was written by her. |
| Past continuous | She was writing a letter. | was/were being + V3 | A letter was being written by her. |
| Past perfect | She had written a letter. | had been + V3 | A letter had been written by her. |
| Future simple | She will write a letter. | will be + V3 | A letter will be written by her. |
| Future perfect | She will have written a letter. | will have been + V3 | A letter will have been written by her. |
| Modals | She can write a letter. | modal + be + V3 | A letter can be written by her. |
| Imperative | Close the door. | Let + object + be + V3 | Let the door be closed. |
Object becomes subject, subject becomes "by + object form" (he → by him, they → by them), and the tense stays the same: only the helping verb changes. Perfect continuous and future continuous are normally not changed to passive, and intransitive verbs (sleep, go, arrive) have no passive.
Direct & indirect speech
| Direct (reporting verb in past) | Indirect |
|---|---|
| present simple (write) | past simple (wrote) |
| present continuous (is writing) | past continuous (was writing) |
| present perfect (has written) | past perfect (had written) |
| past simple (wrote) | past perfect (had written) |
| will / shall / can / may | would / should or would / could / might |
| must (obligation) | had to (or must) |
| Word changes | Other rules | |
|---|---|---|
| now → then today → that day tomorrow → the next day yesterday → the previous day | ago → before here → there this / these → that / those last night → the previous night | No backshift if the reporting verb is present ("He says") or the statement is a universal truth ("The earth is round"). Questions: asked + if/whether (yes/no) or wh-word, then statement order: He asked where I lived. Commands: told / ordered / requested + (not) to + V1: She told me not to wait. |
Error spotting & sentence improvement: the 12-point scan
| # | Check | Wrong → Right |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Subject–verb agreement | The list of items |
| 2 | Tense consistency and time words | I |
| 3 | Pronoun case after prepositions | between you and |
| 4 | Relative pronoun: who for people, which for things | The book |
| 5 | Double comparative / superlative | |
| 6 | Latin comparatives take "to", not "than" | senior |
| 7 | Parallel structure | She likes reading, writing and |
| 8 | Redundancy | |
| 9 | Uncountable nouns | |
| 10 | Paired conjunctions | though ... |
| 11 | Adjective vs adverb | She sings |
| 12 | Question tags: positive sentence → negative tag, and the reverse | He is late, |
Fill in the blanks & para jumbles
| Signal words | What they tell you |
|---|---|
| but, however, although, despite, yet, whereas | The blank is the opposite of the nearby idea. |
| and, also, moreover, furthermore, similarly | The blank continues the same idea and charge. |
| because, since, so, therefore, as a result | The blank is a cause or effect of the nearby idea. |
| for example, such as, like | The blank is an example of the general idea. |
| Para jumble clue | Rule |
|---|---|
| Opening sentence | Introduces the topic, needs nothing before it: no "he / this / however / also" pointing back. |
| Pronoun link | A sentence with "he / it / this idea" comes after the sentence that names the person or idea. |
| Full name then short name | "Dr Anita Rao" comes before "Rao"; "World Health Organization (WHO)" comes before "WHO". |
| General → specific | A general claim comes before its example. |
| Time order | Dates, "first / then / later / finally" set the order. |
| Closing sentence | Often starts with "thus, therefore, hence, in short" or gives a conclusion or suggestion. |
| Mandatory pairs | Find two sentences that must be together (a question and its answer, a claim and "however"), then check which option keeps that pair. |
Test Strategy & Learning Path
The verbal section rewards two things: a steady daily habit (vocabulary and reading cannot be crammed in a week) and a smart order of attack in the exam (grab the quick marks first, leave the long passages for when you know how much time is left).
Like filling a bucket with rocks, pebbles and sand. Put the big rocks in first (the high-mark, reliable question types), then pebbles, then sand. If you start with sand, the rocks never fit.
How verbal sections look
| Test | Typical verbal content | What to expect |
|---|---|---|
| TCS NQT | Sentence completion, error spotting, para jumbles, RC | About 25 questions in about 25 minutes, so about 1 minute per question |
| Infosys | RC, sentence correction, para jumbles, vocabulary, CR | Harder RC and tighter time; CR style questions appear |
| Accenture / Cognizant | Synonyms, fill in the blanks, error spotting, RC | Shorter passages, more grammar and vocabulary |
| AMCAT / eLitmus | Vocabulary, grammar, RC, CR | Adaptive or sectional scoring, accuracy matters |
Time-per-question goals
| Question type | Target time | Order to attempt |
|---|---|---|
| Synonyms / antonyms / one-word / idioms | 15–20 seconds (you know it or you don't) | 1st |
| Confused words, fill in the blanks (single blank) | 30 seconds | 2nd |
| Error spotting, sentence improvement | 40–45 seconds | 3rd |
| Para jumbles | 60–75 seconds | 4th |
| Critical reasoning | 60–90 seconds | 5th |
| Reading comprehension | 2–3 min to read a 250-word passage + 40 seconds per question | Last, but never skip: RC often carries the most marks |
Exam-day approach
Two-pass rule. Pass 1: answer everything you can in the target time and mark the rest. Pass 2: come back to marked questions. Never spend more than twice the target time on one question in pass 1.
Guess smart on vocabulary. If you don't know a word, use the charge test (positive or negative), knock out synonym pairs, and choose from what is left. If there is no negative marking, never leave a question blank.
For grammar, run the 12-point scan in order. Subject–verb agreement and tense catch about half of all error-spotting questions. Check them first before hunting for rare rules.
Rereading the RC passage for every question. Read it once with a one-line summary per paragraph, then jump straight to the proof line for each question. Rereading is where most of the time goes.
Changing a right answer. In verbal, your first careful answer is usually better than a nervous second guess. Change it only when you find a specific rule or proof line that says so.
6-week vocabulary + reading plan
About 60–75 minutes a day, 6 days a week. Day 7 is revision plus one mock from Week 3 onwards. Keep one notebook (or a flashcard app) for every new word and every mistake.
| Week | Focus | Daily targets | End-of-week check |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Roots and prefixes; grammar basics (parts of speech, tenses) | 5 roots + 10 words built from them; 1 short article (400–600 words) read with a one-line summary; 15 grammar MCQs | Can explain 30 roots; 40 synonym/antonym questions at 70%+ accuracy |
| 2 | High-frequency words; subject–verb agreement, articles, prepositions | 15 new words (with one sentence each) + revise yesterday's 15; 1 RC passage (5 questions); 20 error-spotting questions | Error spotting at 60%+; RC passage in under 8 minutes |
| 3 | Idioms and one-word substitution; voice and narration | 10 idioms + 10 one-word substitutes; 1 RC passage; 15 voice/narration questions; 1 editorial (newspaper opinion page) with 3 new words noted | First full verbal mock; review every wrong answer against the Rules Cheat Sheet |
| 4 | Confused words; sentence improvement and fill in the blanks | 10 confused pairs (with hooks); 2 RC passages; 20 fill-in-the-blank or improvement questions | Mock 2; RC accuracy 70%+; target times met for vocabulary questions |
| 5 | Para jumbles and critical reasoning | 10 para jumbles; 10 CR questions (tag each: assumption / strengthen / weaken / inference); 1 RC passage; revise 30 old words | Mock 3; para jumble under 75 seconds each; can name the gap in any CR argument |
| 6 | Timed mixed practice and weak areas | 1 timed sectional test (25–30 questions); review mistakes; 20 flashcards from your error notebook | Mocks 4 and 5 in the real company format; accuracy 75%+ at full speed |
A daily session (60–75 minutes)
| Block | Time | What to do |
|---|---|---|
| Warm-up | 10 min | Flashcards: yesterday's words and three-day-old words (spaced review works, see the reading passage in Reading Comprehension). |
| New words | 15 min | Learn the day's words, idioms or roots. Write one sentence of your own for each. |
| Reading | 15–20 min | One RC passage under time, or one editorial. Write a one-line main idea and the tone before checking answers. |
| Grammar / CR drill | 15–20 min | The week's question type. Time yourself against the targets above. |
| Error log | 5–10 min | For every mistake, write the rule or proof line that would have got it right. This log is your revision material in Week 6. |
Words learnt in 6 weeks at 15/day × 6 days ≈ 500 plus roots, idioms and one-word substitutes. That covers most words that repeat in placement tests.
Test yourself, don't just reread. Cover the meaning column and recall it. Recall practice builds memory far better than reading the list again.
Test-day checklist
- Sleep well the night before; do only a 20-minute flashcard review and the Rules Cheat Sheet.
- Note the number of questions and total time; write the "halfway" time on your rough sheet.
- Attack in the order above: vocabulary → grammar → para jumbles → CR → RC.
- Check if there is negative marking before guessing.
- Keep the last 2 minutes to fill in any blanks (only if there is no negative marking).